tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-51230281845883300222024-03-06T12:42:47.360-08:00Cave and KarstThis Blog site was created for education purposes. The information provided is privately owned. All photographs and content are protected under international copyright protection laws ©caveandkarst.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18086921975598641114noreply@blogger.comBlogger10125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5123028184588330022.post-58108156745960438182020-02-25T08:10:00.000-08:002020-02-25T08:10:17.303-08:00Statement on Illicit Speleothem TradingStatement on Illicit Speleothem Trading<br />
<br />
Prepared by Prof. Elery Hamilton-Smith, AM,<br />
Chair, IUCN / WCPA Task Force on Caves and Karst<br />
<br />
With the assistance of members of the task force and concerned officers of the International Union of Speleology.<br />
<br />
January 2005.<br />
<br />
<br />
Introduction<br />
<br />
During the last twelve months, there has been a great increase in the number and size of speleothems being offered for sale in various countries.<br />
<br />
This is a matter of considerable concern to all of us who are about the conservation and protection of the world’s caves. If these specimens are openly sold, it not only draws attention to them as a potentially marketable commodity, but also serves to make vandalism appear legitimate to many people.<br />
<br />
This trade has taken various forms over a considerable period of time:<br />
<br />
· Harvesting of small specimens as souvenirs, often associated with cave tourism, but also those shops or dealers who service mineral collectors. This is a world-wide issue.<br />
· The harvesting of speleothems is particularly widespread in China and the Philippines and is often brought to notice from there.<br />
· As a specific recent example, “. . . many caves in northern Malaysia are robbed of stalactites and crystals that are openly for sale outside the caves and in towns. This has been documented several times on TV, and is accepted as being OK as it provides an income for the local people ! (Liz Price July 2004)<br />
· Mining or harvesting of karren pinnacles (in many SE Asian Countries), often from agricultural land, which are then sold as garden ornaments<br />
<br />
This problem is clearly related to similar practices in relation to mineral specimens of high quality and a wide range of fossils. For instance, two men from Korea were recently apprehended in South Africa where they had stolen stromatolites; many fossils have certainly been stolen from Australian sites; and there is a massive trade in cave bear and other specimens, largely derived from the former USSR countries.<br />
<br />
Recent Developments<br />
<br />
Most recently, there has been an unprecedented change in the scale of the trade and amounts of money involved. Enormous specimens of speleothems have been sold from Chinese sites. Traders usually claim that this is not damaging because the specimens are taken from areas where massive construction is taking place, or where the caves will be inundated by dams. As noted above, this is not a satisfactory assumption or argument. The practice does legitimate wider vandalism.<br />
Some examples of this problem:<br />
<br />
. . . a large exhibition of cave decoration at the Sunway Lagoon Centre in Kuala Lumpur, and a second display at another venue has just been announced. These are being exhibited as “Scholar Rocks” from the traditional view that they symbolised the growth of wisdom amongst scholars. It has been reported (but not confirmed) that these rocks are currently being excavated in the Lingbi area of Anhui province, where they have apparently been buried by various landscape changes. (It is also very clear that this massive level of exploitation bears relatively little relationship to the traditional scholar rocks. (Liz Price & Elery H-S, July 2004)<br />
<br />
<br />
One of the displays in Kuala Lumpur.<br />
<br />
In July/Aug a shopping centre in Kuala Lumpur set up an exhibition of more than<br />
210 pieces of stalagmites, stalactites, crystals, and pieces of gour pools. They were incredibly beautiful specimens, many more than 2m high, 2 m long and also many crystal pieces. They were all mounted on nice wooden bases. I was unable to find out any details of the origin of the stalactites. (Liz Price July 2004)<br />
<br />
Next, a water theme park near Kuala Lumpur has an exhibition of the largest collection of "scholar's rocks" in the world. (see comment above) These also include speleothems. Some stalactites are for sale US$ 140,000, $ 225,000 and another is valued at $410,000. All weigh over half a ton and are purportedly from China.<br />
The shopping centre in KL changed its theme and set up a new exhibition of stone<br />
and wood carvings as well as other artefacts with cultural and historical values<br />
from China. These included some stalactites about 3-4 m high.<br />
(Liz Price, July 2004)<br />
<br />
A shop in Brussels sells (9000 Euros each) large draperies from China. It<br />
had 3 and has already sold 2. When I asked in person in this shop, it seems that this merchant is not the only one in Europe to buy a lot of formations. He says he has a certificate that justifies the origin and the reason of their extraction: they were removed before the cave was to be flooded with water due to the construction of a dam. (Jean-Pierre Bartholeyns)<br />
<br />
When I was recently in China, I stayed at a hotel in Guilin where a series of stalagmites were set in a pool in the foyer (adjacent to the Coca-Cola machine). Then we visited the famous Reed Flute Cave where the path to the cave was virtually lined with an avenue of stalls selling speleothems. But I must also say that when I formally recommended that such sales brought discredit to the nation and should be stopped, there were many expressions of support. I have also seen an immense change over the last year in the general attitudes to conservation in at least Southern China, so perhaps we should be optimistic and certainly should support those who are working for improved environmental management in China. (Elery H-S)<br />
<br />
At Reed Flute Cave, Guilin.<br />
<br />
A Proposal for Action<br />
<br />
In spite of the problems in prevention, it seems that we need to establish a joint body, involving at least the IUCN / WCPA Task Force and the International Union of Speleology. Such a body could further investigate the problem and potential responsive strategies, and enter into negotiation with governments or international organisations. Accordingly, we are looking to hold a meeting in conjunction with the International Congress of Speleology, being held in Athens on the 21-28th August.<br />
<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
<br />
Individuals who have both passed on information of specific incidents, and/or advised on the content of this document include:<br />
<br />
Liz Price, Malaysia<br />
Carol Hill, Tom Lera, Val and Jim Werker, all from USA<br />
Patrick Cabrol, France<br />
Mike Buchanan, South Africa<br />
Jean-Pierre Bartholeyns, Belgium, (Chair UIS Karst Protection Department)<br />
Paolo Forti, Italycaveandkarst.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18086921975598641114noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5123028184588330022.post-51444888822690754842013-11-26T13:33:00.000-08:002020-09-08T07:47:20.942-07:00Mike Buchanan's Cave and karst pictures<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />caveandkarst.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18086921975598641114noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5123028184588330022.post-44248420213957811072008-08-03T11:21:00.000-07:002013-03-09T03:47:31.786-08:00Karst Disasters<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgg-QRtJMtP7adHRPZxiGDOy161AojyzGyaMSgrqZK9GtUR388L36GbKeGRn5H-oRs4YNJyYjeBwKNRZNcmzR3fBW5QsoNTw7XH1vp4wppnPoENzcsI6GBOZC7YNZ_cUohyvezyy6XcFkA/s1600-h/IMG_0199.JPG"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5230359287574988658" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgg-QRtJMtP7adHRPZxiGDOy161AojyzGyaMSgrqZK9GtUR388L36GbKeGRn5H-oRs4YNJyYjeBwKNRZNcmzR3fBW5QsoNTw7XH1vp4wppnPoENzcsI6GBOZC7YNZ_cUohyvezyy6XcFkA/s320/IMG_0199.JPG" style="cursor: hand; float: right; margin: 0px 0px 10px 10px;" /></a><br />
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<strong><span style="font-size: 130%;">The Worlds Greatest Karst Disaster</span></strong></div>
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Involving one hundred years of well-intended anthropogenic destruction, which is destroying a unique karst groundwater system and habitat<br />
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The city of Johannesburg in South Africa had its beginnings 1886 when gold was discovered on the Witwatersrand by an Australian prospector named George Harrison.<br />
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Most gold mines in the Johannesburg (JHB) area ceased operation in the late 1970s. These closed mines were considered as future potential reserves. Interspersed amongst them were a few productive mines, which continued to pump out invading groundwater. The mining houses had long relied upon the South African government to help finance the back pumping of ingressing groundwater to enable access to continuous supplies of gold from deeper gold rich seams. At the time many leading academics and others were unaware that the water they were back pumping came from the abundant, dolomitic rock that surrounds Johannesburg. Furthermore, these groundwater reservoirs were of a great depth and area, thus containing an immense water reserve.<br />
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In 1995 the government discontinued its pumping subsidy and allowed the un-used voids to fill with groundwater. By 2002 the groundwater table essentially restored itself to the pre mining days and started overflowing from natural springs at the lowest altitude, which is located 1.5km north of the Krugersdorp Game Reserve (KGR), west of Johannesburg. Output or decant was recorded at 15 -30 ml. per day with seasonal variation. It was only when fish, birds and then mammals started dying within the KGR that anyone sat up and took notice. On investigation the decanting water was found to contain elevated levels of sulphates of 5300mg/l (Council for Geosciences readings). The Environmental Protection Agency primary (enforceable) maximum contaminant level for sulphates in drinking water is 500 mg/l. On closer investigation the findings reported a plethora of heavy metals including high Uranium, Lead 1,2,3 (as a result of both geological dissolution and that of Uranium dissolution). Molybdenum, Manganese, Zinc and other unacceptably high heavy metals. The actual total volume of overflow water appears to be increasing which suggests leakage from the old storage dams.<br />
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The sulphate levels were directly attributed to the dissolution of the gold bearing conglomerate which includes pyrites and the latter mentioned heavy metals. Diverse bacteria, particularly acidithiobacillus were being held responsible for the elevated sulphate levels which caused the discharging groundwater to have a pH of around 2.0. The bacterium most often responsible for iron and sulphur consumption/dissolution is Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, but usually other species also occur.<br />
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A honeycomb of thousands of kilometres of interconnected mine shafts, tunnels and voids under JHB and the entire Witwatersrand created a diversionary storm water drainage system for the greater JHB catchment. Many mega litres of storm water had been inadvertently allowed to pass through this now expansive subterranean drainage system which decants west of JHB. As a result of this diversionary flow during winter months (lowest rainfall) the entire process is slowed right down, allowing for mega litres of groundwater to be impacted by the acidic exudation of huge and expanding colonies of acidithiobacillus. This continuing process now sees the water being contaminated by diverse species of Thiobacillus bacteria. These organisms are producing corrosive plumes which emanate from over 200 mineshafts and now all the contaminated rivers around JHB. . Although this is a centrally important in mine management, and absolutely crucial to the problems which arise in karst sites, it is an extremely complex and not fully understood phenomenon. 1<br />
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The dolomite Karst surrounding JHB is hugely interconnected. Hypothesized to be<br />
a) one of the globe’s oldest (c. 2300 billion years old)<br />
b) overlain by the Bushveld Igneous Complex (BIC) and<br />
c) being vastly expansive covering an area of 500km x 250km which could mean that this is a unique kind of regenerating (post the BIC cover) Karst system.<br />
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The total catchment is much larger by the mere virtue of the system being so vast. Catchments involved are the Limpopo River Catchment to the northeast and the Vaal River Catchment to the south west. Both of which provide water to South Africa and her neighbours - Botswana, Namibia, Mozambique. The Limpopo based karst is a cross boundary karst as it is shared with Botswana.<br />
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A mean average of approximately 20 mega liters per day of contaminated groundwater has flowed into rivers and karst systems from the mining voids of JHB over the past six years with little or no intervention to launder the water within the voids. The overflowing fluvial flow disappears via a sunken stream or swallet some three kilometers downstream the now smitten KGR. Unfortunately this contaminated AMD water is being returned to the dolomite karst aquifers in a highly contaminated form. Hypotheses have been leveled at the South African authorities as to the outcomes in years to come from a karst health, structural and water quality point of view to no avail. Offers of assistance from the international community have also been turned away as the Government appears to believe that there is not any cause for concern. It is a nice example of the Ostrich syndrome.<br />
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The action being taken is only dealing with the over-flowing water which is processed and sold at a considerable and profitable price by government sanctioned companies. There appears to be no awareness at all that this water is only a very small part of the total groundwater reservoir and there is inevitably a great diversity of underground flows through the karst. Thus the current program serves opportunistically to increase revenue, but has no impact at all on reducing the problem and probably exacerbates it. Regrettably the ostrich response means that it is not possible to do any further research or even to properly monitor what is happening<br />
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Many hundreds of viable wild cave habitats, including the world famous Cradle of Humankind World Heritage fossil site at Sterkfontein are in direct conflict with the ongoing decant and associated complications. It is really very clear that unless appropriate action is taken, there will be irreversible detrimental damage to the world Heritage Site and to the greater Witwatersrand and her people, not to mention the detriment which will play out and also damage South Africa’s unsuspecting neighbours. This will include the belated impact to the world famous Kruger National Park which is in a direct surface flow path of the Limpopo River and the associated Oliphant’s River catchments.<br />
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1. Nordstrom, D.K. & Southam, G. 1997. Geomicrobiology of sulfide mineral oxidation. In Geomicrobiology: Interactions between microbes and minerals, Reviews in Mineralogy, 35, 361-390.caveandkarst.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18086921975598641114noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5123028184588330022.post-64917049274704485372007-08-15T13:22:00.006-07:002013-11-26T13:22:49.963-08:00IUCN SA Karst Working Group<br />
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<span style="color: #006600; font-size: 180%;">IUCN (SA) Karst Working Group</span></div>
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All pictures are taken by and remain the property of Mike Buchanan</div>
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For information and prices on cave or karst pictures please email:-</div>
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caveandkarst@gmail.com</div>
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<span style="font-size: 180%;">INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE, SOUTH AFRICA COUNTRY OFFICE (IUCN SA) - KARST WORKING GROUP</span>.<br />
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The Cave Research Organisation of South Africa (C.R.O.S.A.) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature South Africa Country Office (IUCN SA) established the Karst Working Group. The first meeting, with Saliem Fakir and Mike Buchanan present, was held at The IUCN SA in Pretoria on Wednesday 9 July 2003.<br />
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The first founder meeting was held at The IUCN SA Pretoria. Thursday 5 February 2004. Present: were Melinda Swift (GDACE), Saliem Fakir (IUCN), Murray McGregor (independent karst consultant), Melissa Fourie (IUCN SA), Leintjie Cohen (Mpumalanga Parks Board). Garfield Krige (Land Owner), Neil Norquay (Wild Cave Adventures), Mike Buchanan (C.R.O.S.A.). Nigel Fernsby (GNORBIG) Bat interest Group.<br />
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INTRODUCTION<br />
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A Karst Working Group (KWG) was created to caution, document, advise and to help monitor and reverse the degradation of karst systems in the old “Transvaal” South Africa; now Gauteng, Northwest Province, Limpopo Province and Mpumalanga. This working group was to oversee direction on the rehabilitation and remediation of South Africa's Neoachaean dolomite palaeokarst basin - the South African Aquifer (SAA), of which 75% resides under the Bush Veld Igneous Complex (BIC) - a vastly dynamic Karst groundwater system, that has taken 2300 million years to evolve. This huge basin has its central point at an altitude of 3300 ft above mean sea level (amsl), where effluxes from ancient hydrothermal springs/vents are evident. It has a perimeter altitude in the south of 5000ft amsl (Sterkfontein Caves environs) and a northerly perimeter of 4000 ft amsl (Makapan Valley).<br />
The disparity has been created by the geological shifting/tilting of this basin due to historical occurrence's, i.e. tectonics, volcanic action and /or meteorite impact which created the Vreedefort Dome astrobleme. The latter possibly being the most likely cause.<br />
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HISTORY<br />
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In the mid 1990’s much debate and concerns were leveled at the new Government around delays in management of natural places and State Reserves. This was seen to be a low priority for our fledgling democracy. Conservation was deemed an apartheid word and connected to land dispossession of previously disadvantaged people.<br />
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Early days – 1994/5<br />
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During this time, the seeds of the KWG were sown. The original concept started small, with the start of an organization called The Friends of Wolkberg. This conservation concept started around campfires outside the Wolkberg Caves in Limpopo Province during monitoring visits. The primary originators were: -<br />
Chris Wynn, a concerned CROSA member, Stanley Rodgers, an Environmental Officer with the Department of Environment and Tourism (DEAT), Polokwane, Mike Buchanan. Chairperson for The Cave Research Organization of South Africa, Cornelius and Mrs. Van Den Berg, both environmental managers with the Department of Environment and Tourism (DEAT), Polokwane. Cornelius was the manager in charge of the Wolkberg Wilderness Area, Wolkberg Caves Nature Reserve and Legalametsie Nature Reserve.<br />
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<a href="http://mg.co.za/article/2005-04-12-a-rising-acid-tide/">http://mg.co.za/article/2005-04-12-a-rising-acid-tide/</a><br />
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At first, it was noted that the Government was not going to pass any form of budget to protect The Wolkberg Caves Nature reserve. We believed then that this site warranted world wilderness recognition as a protected water farm or equivalent.<br />
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The Wolkberg caves were being subjected to theft and general neglect. Many local folk and politicians called for the opening of Wolkberg Caves to the public. This included the heritage farmhouses on the government owned adjacent farm Mimosa. We embarked on an awareness campaign, introducing many knowledgeable and interested people to the area and they agreed with the urgent need for conservation or environmental protection of the area. The caves were also known to be Histoplasma capsulatum (caves disease) prevalent. This discouraged tourism to the cave, but not to the farm or established reserves. We embarked on more fund raising initiatives and at about that time DEAT stepped in and informed us that if we wanted to go forward, we should include all the established reserves, including those that were owned privately, namely. Des Saco - Ashmoledales, Thabina & Legalametsi Nature Reserves and the Wolkberg Wilderness Area. This was to be called The Drakensburg Escarpment Biosphere Reserve Program (DEBR); a multi-stakeholder initiative. Unfortunately this was a bad decision because it left DEAT Limpopo with far to unwieldy program to manage.<br />
All the private stakeholders were told to pull out due to the initial size of the project. This sound advice came from Advocate François Junod, a master of conservation areas private conservation programs. François was the creator of The Magalisberg Nature Reserve and the new Water Act for our new South Africa. François had continually cautioned about going to big too fast. Typically these projects had the makings of a failure due to the old analogy of biting of more than you can chew! The DEBR is still ongoing and no progressive changes have been made at any of the reserves the project was intended to conserve.<br />
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CHALLENGES<br />
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Mike Buchanan has made allegations of bad management of the dynamic karst system supporting The Cradle of Human Kind World Heritage Site, including the rest of The SAA. These have been directed at to both Dept Water affairs and Forestry (DWAF) and GDACE. Multifarious abusers exist; most unaware of induced damage, and they all need to be encouraged to comply with international karst best practice for a reversal of the situation. Mike then joined the international IUCN, WCPA, Task force on cave and karst, which is under the leadership of Professor Elery Hamilton Smith, Australia; an international leader in karst management and world karst matters. Elery is well informed around new and existing karst concerns. It was Elery that encouraged Mike to approach The IUCN SA for assistance on the creation of a multi-stakeholder Karst Working Group (KWG).<br />
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Both Elery and Mike have developed a sound working relationship within the IUCN WCPA Task force on Cave and Karst and they maintain constant contact with the exchange of local and international developments.<br />
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THE IUCN SA KARST WORKING GROUP<br />
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Mr Saliem Fakir, from the IUCN South Africa, was approached by Mike Buchanan (then chairperson for CROSA) around concerns relating to a deficit in "impact assessment" around the tourism potential of The Cradle of Human Kind and the rest of The SAA. This site was declared a World Heritage Site (CHK WHS) by UNESCO in 1999 because of the paleao & cultural significance of the area. Many other issues around karst misuse were starting to come to fruition around the huge South African Aquifer basin.<br />
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The original intended focus of the creation of this working group was to invite all stakeholders on karst matters to attend and contribute, thus enabling the dissemination of international best practice information pertaining to karst use and conservation. This came about as a result of extensive research by Mike on the impacts facing caves and groundwater supporting the CHKWHS. Many mining, agricultural and development impacts were becoming increasingly concerning. Urbanization on the Pretoria karst near Irene and Verwoerdburg were getting out of hand. Not to mention that of Johannesburg and Mogale City on The CHKWHS. The Authorities had all failed to identify the imminent threats and were not perturbed by them at the time, even though many of these problems had been brought to the following departments attention; namely DACE, DWAF and DEAT as early as 1998.<br />
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Both Saliem and Mike felt that the establishment of a multi-stakeholder Karst Working Group was essential. It was decided that the working group should be called The IUCN SA Karst Working Group. Mike set about drawing up a list of stakeholders. This led to a founder meeting, where a way forward was planned.<br />
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Mike and others then set out to raise finance by approaching GDACE, SASOL, ALPHA Cement, Goldfields and other well known corporate companies. We also attempted to bring the biggest impactors on board; i.e. the mines. This was achieved by inviting Goldfields Dr Andries Leuschner to join and a turning point was attained.<br />
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The rest of the progress of the KWG has been well documented in it's own annals. 2005 saw quite a number of changes. Mike Buchanan had felt some were commercialising the KWG to attain funding, rather than getting down to drawing up codes of conduct for karst users and researchers, which was seen as a pre-requisite. Mike then started a more intensive campaign, to create interdepartmental Government awareness. Saliem resigned from the IUCN SA in late 2005. It is important to point out that the three originators are still on the mailing list, namely Stan Rodgers, Cor Van den Berg and Mike Buchanan.<br />
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WAY FORWARD<br />
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The current direction of the KWG is cautiously slow. Stakeholders representation is very weak and funding is what is needed right now in order to maintain momentum and attract research interest. This should be provided by the departments responsible for the tasking of Conservation on/in Karst Wetland Systems. DWAF should be leading the way on this topic, as the rest of the world is currently registering Karst as wetlands under the RAMSAR convention. The GDACE have had good representation on the KWG with very little funding in support of the project. This has primarily come in the form of paid publications from Blue IQ and the Water Research Commission, who has kept the KWG afloat. However, funding has been scant for the amount of awareness that this voluntary working group has achieved to date. It is in the interest and the responsibility of these departments, along with the Department of Minerals & Energy Affairs, to provide funding. If theses departments had heeded the advice given to them in the 1990’s (N.B. many paid government papers) we would not have required the KWG in the first place. In effect the government is currently shifting responsibility onto a voluntary, under-funded KWG to provide the functions that is, without doubt, a government responsibility, namely Karst and groundwater management.. Perhaps a Karst Institute or commission is what is required as an independent overarching governmental body, financed by the tax payer.<br />
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It would be a disastrous mistake not to adopt an independent, unbiased Governmental Karst Commission or similar, to curtail the current ignorance around the multifarious issues pertaining to South African Karst and the associated groundwater.<br />
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MIKE BUCHANAN<br />
2 April 2006<a href="http://www.iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_strategic/wcpa_conservingsd/wcpa_cavestf/index.cfm"></a><a href="http://www.iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_strategic/wcpa_conservingsd/wcpa_cavestf/index.cfm"></a>caveandkarst.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18086921975598641114noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5123028184588330022.post-25663461764171946682007-08-15T13:22:00.005-07:002013-06-04T09:55:11.065-07:00<br />
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<span style="font-size: 180%;"><strong>Histoplasma capsulatum - Histo - South Africa 2006</strong></span><br />
Histoplasma spores are prevalent in the atmosphere all the time. Our immune systems tolerance is derived by the local level of exposure. Within certain caves, typically low energy systems receding/dropping water table being the key to increased prevalence, the closer to the equator the more the prevalence becomes. Along with all other tropical diseases.<br />
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Histoplasma <i>capsulatum</i> is an intelligent Dimorphic Fungus. This does not mean it can make tea. The intellect comes in the form of a transformation from a fungus into a yeast, as the spore settles and defuses through the alveoli membranes of the lung, into the blood stream.</div>
"Calcareous lesions" as reported radiologically historically, have been disproved by direct biopsy. The prevalence of reactive lymph nodes within the lungs specifically in the mediastinum is what we see as a "storm" on the x-ray image.<br />
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As with the evolution of the development of your immune system from birth, so too does your immune system learn to tolerate future exposure to volumetrically higher levels of the spores I.e. in a damp dark cave.. The fungus will grow on/in any biological matter if provided a constant Rh, temp and my passion, darkness. Just like within the lungs. An ideal incubator for many diseases. Hence a regular misdiagnosis as tuberculosis or TB.<br />
This is not a bat disease as is portrayed by ignorance historically. Histo can also be cultured in old books in darkened archives. Histo is not a disease that you want to acquire. Therefore anyone exposed to the fungus knowingly, should be exposed with the knowledge that they will have an immune system adjustment. Thereby providing deficits in other possible immunity like the exposure to chemotherapy or other yeast based drugs. Visitors to caves must be informed, which is not happening. Apart from some caving clubs and research organisations.<br />
Histoplasma <i>capsulatum</i> is a yeast borne disease. Yeast bourne diseases are one of the four most deleterious diseases known to human kind. Most prevalent in subterranean ecosystems, along with many other undocumented bacteria, fauna and flora found in this under valued essential component of our carbon and water cycle's.<br />
South Africa's top expert Dr. Celia Young, now retired, is contactable through the South African Laboratory Service. Previously The South African Institute for Medical Research. SAIMR. The Department of Mycology can help with Celia's contact details should you wish to include her in the quest for further karst based knowledge.<br />
Wonder Caves has had no report of histo historically due to the nature of ventilation, modified environment, compaction, oxidization, etc. The correct assumption or description would be a low prevalence or occurrence. Should we be able to detect spores from Histo (impossible due to size) we would find them in both Sterkfontein and Wonder Caves respectfully.<br />
The same can be said for the use of face masks. These filters are typically violated due to the minute size of the African Histopalsma <i>capsulatum </i>spore. Which some authors deem a mutinagen of the American Histoplasma. However this is doubtful, subject to further investigation.<br />
Once a patient contracts Histo, one should be aware of consuming conflicting yeast products and build up of yeasts within your own body (a personal observation), or be aware of yeast sensitivity's as the medical profession refers to. This could become problematic as the patient ages and matures along with the disease. Knowledge and a strong immune system for the patient is the best remedy in this case. Should one contract aggressive histo or have a stressed immune system and contract Histo, Itraconazol is the drug of choice (South Africa pharma - Sporonox) which may be taken with Amphicilin B for the more acute cases. This should be administered under the direct control of a knowledgeable Physician.<br />
Mike Buchanan 2006 CROSA</div>
caveandkarst.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18086921975598641114noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5123028184588330022.post-4200329776737141922007-08-15T13:22:00.004-07:002013-05-16T07:51:15.904-07:00<br />
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<span style="font-size: 180%;">Mine Acid Decant Western Area<br />A Health Issue for The South African Aquifer</span><br />
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A mine acid decant was predicted in Gov financed publications as early as 1995. This decant and the subsequent research did not identify that the acid water would ultimately decant into fresh potable groundwater reserves.</div>
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Up to five years back, heavy metals poisoning was becoming prevalent around the point of decant prior to the commencement of surface flow. All animals including humans were the casualties.<br />
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In August 2002 almost to the forecast date, the brew/cocktail of sulphate based heavy metals started to flow from any conceivable spring, mine ventilation and mine shaft at this lowest altitude just south of the now collapsing (both figuratively and literally) Krugersdorp Game Park west of Mogale City.<br />
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Theorists (possibly those who got us into the mess we are in - The Mine Geohydrologists) initially thought that this decant was directly attributable to the two largest gold mine tailings dams in South Africa. This was later proved to be incorrect due to the amount of water resurgence experienced seasonally.<br />
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The decant was also predicted to flow to the south into the Wonderfontein catchment, consisting of some of the most extensive dolomite (karst) areas. This was also said to be desirable by those geohydrologists.<br />
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In the mean time much international best practice was beginning to emerge around the “Dolomite/Palindaba Rock” that we are privileged to have an abundance of! This geology acquired a new name called Karst. As this geology has now (1948 rest of world) been identified as one of the most sensitive to pollutants of any kind, as the geology is remarkable in its water carrying and its ability to purify rainwater to acceptable potable limits.<br />
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Unfortunately highly fractured and defuse as detailed in a South African publication” The Story of Life and Earth” by Mc McCarthy and Rubidge. They explain how meteorites and plate tectonics have fractured this dolomite almost like the shattering of a motor vehicle windscreen.<br />
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Our karst is some of the oldest in the world (paleaokarst). A huge hydrologically dynamic system that has baffled and eluded even those who “profess” to be masters/scientists on the topic.<br />
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This karst, once sediment, was laid down over millions, if not billions of years and is still evolving. As karst is a carbon dioxide sink, balancing the CO2 effect/s on/of global warming. It is also seen as a weather moderator being responsible for report and delivery of our rainfall patterns.<br />
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During deep mining operations we have inadvertently connected multiple natural catchments by interconnecting all the historical mining shafts/tunnels throughout the entire eastern, central and western JHB mining voids. Creating a diversionary storm water drainage system that unfortunately decants at the lowest altitude.<br />
The position just south of the Krugersdorp Game Park.<br />
Our “GROUND ZERO“.<br />
Reports of animals dieing as a result of Mine Acid Drainage have been prolific for the last two years and we have failed to respond. Gauteng’s Dept. Health, Epidemiology has no idea about the detrimental decant of heavy metals.<br />
Including dissolved Uranium! Prevalent in the Wits (gold bearing) geology. Each heavy metal providing a unique mineral dissolving phoebe or bacterial colony.<br />
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Not to mention the differing hazardous leads that will precipitate during this dissolution of the uranium and other toxic heavy metals. The lead1,2,3,4 compounds (some in aerosol form) have reportedly caused untold human toxification. To be remedied (should they be fortunate enough) at their own expense. DME<br />
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The Council for Geosciences have been very active with regards all aspects of this heavy metal poisoning, as their own staff have personal projects in the making re the deleterious nature of the heavy metal contaminated decant. If this is truly the case, these sufferers/patients have the right to know why the investigating geohydrologists or physicists/practitioners felt that the Dept Health should not be involved.<br />
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We are also dealing with some academic ignorance of the ultimate direction of this toxic water's flow.<br />
As a result of this sedimentary succession being laid down in the form of an Achaean sea. Then, the 2100 million year time laps before humans evolved into what we are today. This sea was subject to a proverbial bombardment of diverse environmental stresses. Volcanic - meteorite - tectonic impacts fracturing the sediment and all associated igneous (volcanic) infill rock within this sedimentary now solidified three dimensional inland sea or water body. Aquifer.<br />
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Most well versed karst hydrologists will always view karst deposition in a sedimentary way. A bowl shaped geology containing many differing layers which host a plethora of life’s answers, groundwater conduits and channels still to be explored.<br />
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The ultimate realisations are that the karst basins or bowls all have a central point to the host basin, too which groundwater will always flow. Typically interspersed by a series of hydrothermal springs (hot water) as we have in the Warm Baths, Bella Bella area. These thermal springs are the clues to the karst basin hydrologist. Including the fact that they emanate from deep-seated buried karst. Chem data.<br />
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After investigations more hydrothermal springs were found at the lowest most altitudes within our huge basin. Located near Grobelarsdal and Thabazimbi respectively.<br />
These clues, along with the water chemistry indicating karst water and C14 studies (to determine rough age of water) of these hydrothermal vents, indicate that they are indeed a part of a huge dynamic karst system, residing underneath the economically important geological structure called - The Bushveld Igneous Complex - or BIC.<br />
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That would mean that a huge plug (from differing events) of volcanic infill covers (protects) this once huge inland Achaean sea. Now a hydrological karst dynamic system called The South African Aquifer, (The SAA) of which the lateral limits have still to be identified.<br />
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Many linkages between The SAA’s northern and southern visible karst exist. I.e. a direct link through a documented geological fault system, from Mogale City JHB via Hartabeespoort dam through to Thabazimbi - Bella Bella can be demonstrated. The current decant emanating from Mogale City will ultimately saturate groundwater reserves between these points, if allowed to continue unabated.<br />
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Another interesting link to Pretoria from Bella Bella also exists. This may not be direct as in the Hartabeespoort Thabazimbi connection but it does exist. The CGS. More funding and research is required.<br />
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The entire SAA is under direct diverse pollutant threat. It has been for many decades as a result of past academic bias to the profession that makes demands of this specialisation. We have to address the globality of the destructive nature of the toxicity of this man made also natural phenomenon. For us to allow this pollution to migrate is an indictment to our intellect.<br />
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Our economy is certainly at risk here as the mineral wealth that we are so proud of, is being slowly diluted and being washed by the most important life giving geology. Karst. A unsustainable situation with disastrous effects.<br />
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A very undesirable situation. As this will lead to untold casualties from all walks of life as is happening at "Ground Zero" Mogale City at this time.<br />
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A vastly economic, detrimental phobic reaction is currently being fed by our ongoing ignorance around the KARST topic. The Government needs to establish a karst groundwater task team with unlimited funding until we can at the very least start to reverse the destruction done over the last 120 years.<br />
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Mike Buchanan March 2006</div>
caveandkarst.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18086921975598641114noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5123028184588330022.post-56422521147607008332007-08-15T13:22:00.003-07:002016-03-30T08:32:35.736-07:00Karst images<div align="center">
<span style="color: #666666; font-size: 180%;"><strong>Karst Images by Mike Buchanan</strong></span></div>
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<span style="color: #009900;">Miniopterus bats in flight</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj75GsKp1gCvLHebdipCSShp9u5UNRJs8QlHbR3M1LAKCZFkqIs6j4_Pom3_0WnHRTx2g8WOBC9QW10WISDUDosmgUbqA7xAQqUS9o23gz2FRY_p_ZmNOBpTmf79CsN9psRoXZ2sXorJKw/s1600-h/DSCF0016.JPG"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5099054032128298338" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj75GsKp1gCvLHebdipCSShp9u5UNRJs8QlHbR3M1LAKCZFkqIs6j4_Pom3_0WnHRTx2g8WOBC9QW10WISDUDosmgUbqA7xAQqUS9o23gz2FRY_p_ZmNOBpTmf79CsN9psRoXZ2sXorJKw/s320/DSCF0016.JPG" style="cursor: hand;" /></a><br />
<span style="color: #000099;">Secondary mineral deposits or cave speleothem</span><span style="color: #000099;"></span><span style="color: #000099;"></span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcnQTULnD9mUiH7oCDDN8lExH-ei7RFaLGqOVIGInf0jHuz-VmZy1_hV4ChhxW7o5N2CmP_QMn0KysrCFpxDmwI9-KhL0_WAUSocTz8BtMcp_dVESxL7sUpxYb0k1satzlXdHIBcj_0dk/s1600-h/DSC01212.JPG"><strong>Fossils </strong><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5099053654171176274" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcnQTULnD9mUiH7oCDDN8lExH-ei7RFaLGqOVIGInf0jHuz-VmZy1_hV4ChhxW7o5N2CmP_QMn0KysrCFpxDmwI9-KhL0_WAUSocTz8BtMcp_dVESxL7sUpxYb0k1satzlXdHIBcj_0dk/s320/DSC01212.JPG" style="cursor: hand;" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh62qiBO9dwEGgN7asbTmcTBnDHfMZf5zIuIGyn-qRgdE4jPhtIQOLJarU7rfhImW4XQ9asXcI6E0YoXh0maQ_MoNJM33jj28FFniV2QJ6S5iwBs_H6I8tr53KUq-72O6JKDcmx7neLzAA/s1600-h/DSCF0225.JPG"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5099053250444250434" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh62qiBO9dwEGgN7asbTmcTBnDHfMZf5zIuIGyn-qRgdE4jPhtIQOLJarU7rfhImW4XQ9asXcI6E0YoXh0maQ_MoNJM33jj28FFniV2QJ6S5iwBs_H6I8tr53KUq-72O6JKDcmx7neLzAA/s320/DSCF0225.JPG" style="cursor: hand;" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #009900; font-size: 130%;">Cave Ecology - Miniopterus bats</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqMGDw0H97jvOOWt52yPVpray0WwMZ9S8kLEJo30M3AFni7mmqzBsOwN5vLGxvXI3p73y60dJkAwEdxYrxbyYmxJUgpImmUVvnoSPN0pWa4vXP1otQpbNfxu2nzKoTiic8mgSAiniYG-s/s1600-h/DSC00262.JPG"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5099052962681441586" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqMGDw0H97jvOOWt52yPVpray0WwMZ9S8kLEJo30M3AFni7mmqzBsOwN5vLGxvXI3p73y60dJkAwEdxYrxbyYmxJUgpImmUVvnoSPN0pWa4vXP1otQpbNfxu2nzKoTiic8mgSAiniYG-s/s320/DSC00262.JPG" style="cursor: hand;" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #993300;"><span style="font-size: 130%;">Ooliths</span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTeF4jgKjN2KCkpdgd6bwJYjy5iKAI3NLpewHSJWf24Hn9tfZ3cFbpJqz-TGmqY55TF_ZUOGeKVoOv5AcPbQRuFutmDR4fNT8_HOMqFxtaNIOoD7hjgXp7NssHn13CqgBX3mIjjig3J8E/s1600-h/DSC01266.JPG"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5099052279781641506" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTeF4jgKjN2KCkpdgd6bwJYjy5iKAI3NLpewHSJWf24Hn9tfZ3cFbpJqz-TGmqY55TF_ZUOGeKVoOv5AcPbQRuFutmDR4fNT8_HOMqFxtaNIOoD7hjgXp7NssHn13CqgBX3mIjjig3J8E/s320/DSC01266.JPG" style="cursor: hand;" /></a> <span style="color: #663333;"><strong><span style="font-size: 130%;">Stromatalites</span></strong></span><br />
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<strong><span style="color: #666666;">Dolomite Karst</span></strong> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8Tdgn9MDrSUuUY1GkTf3USQcyIaVzphCIM5Wlvb17m-zfczlGWMjcwPiyAQjKZV56eenPalh_heigMIOrRGRWDrUrG_DMs8IIt5qBsFRo8q8Sa3wrOwI0nDNinRN3Y5CLIM-p0JuJFb4/s1600-h/dolomite.JPG"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5099051304824065298" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8Tdgn9MDrSUuUY1GkTf3USQcyIaVzphCIM5Wlvb17m-zfczlGWMjcwPiyAQjKZV56eenPalh_heigMIOrRGRWDrUrG_DMs8IIt5qBsFRo8q8Sa3wrOwI0nDNinRN3Y5CLIM-p0JuJFb4/s320/dolomite.JPG" style="cursor: hand;" /></a></div>
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<strong>Cave formations are a small part of karst system conservation</strong><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyKRJrsPglo_k_nqoGTjvxyrUy-Q2aTR-fugGGIrkEI7IgEaueL7ARoa4fdVFUc3rdLLKiKbX__HuMilbsGhnvrkd9eFvK7oJeIFOuTKwsnTiO1HZVu9t1h5svms2F0OFIl69kd4dR2Eg/s1600-h/DSCF0100.JPG"><img alt="" border="0" height="227" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5099048925412183266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyKRJrsPglo_k_nqoGTjvxyrUy-Q2aTR-fugGGIrkEI7IgEaueL7ARoa4fdVFUc3rdLLKiKbX__HuMilbsGhnvrkd9eFvK7oJeIFOuTKwsnTiO1HZVu9t1h5svms2F0OFIl69kd4dR2Eg/s200/DSCF0100.JPG" style="cursor: hand; height: 174px; width: 249px;" width="473" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-size: large;">NEW </span></b>For more pictures please click on this link -<br />
<a href="http://caveandkarstpics.blogspot.co.uk/"><span style="color: blue;">More Cave and Karst Pictures</span></a><br />
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<span style="font-size: 180%;">The most important part of karst systems are <span style="color: #993300;">S</span><span style="color: #993300;">edimentary Geology,</span> <span style="color: #000066;">Groundwater,</span><span style="color: #006600;"> Ecology</span></span></div>
caveandkarst.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18086921975598641114noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5123028184588330022.post-12088752403868943702007-08-15T13:22:00.002-07:002013-05-16T07:51:36.078-07:00<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHVWWmWLnji9UZrWkp9INen-wjHSQNrMb8YQSHu0Coyk1UvnTNM554qb7lyrDpTuajUtXo4qjSfVyXQJZQP38PBh7ON6FPs6G65JK79X3WYHSkU33Gkmz6-q88Q16IGgVSTAuig5HP_vo/s1600-h/blog5.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5103818186132804818" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHVWWmWLnji9UZrWkp9INen-wjHSQNrMb8YQSHu0Coyk1UvnTNM554qb7lyrDpTuajUtXo4qjSfVyXQJZQP38PBh7ON6FPs6G65JK79X3WYHSkU33Gkmz6-q88Q16IGgVSTAuig5HP_vo/s200/blog5.jpg" style="cursor: hand; float: right; margin: 0px 0px 10px 10px;" /></a><br />
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<span style="font-size: 130%;">HEALTH AND SAFETY</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 78%;">Thiobacillus ferrooxidans stained ground</span> <br />
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Typhoid is caused by the bacteria Salmonella Typhi, which is carried by human waste. This bacterium finds its way into natural drinking water, and this contaminated water is then consumed by people who are then exposed to this disease.<br />
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1.1 Bacterium conveyed via water, are either contaminating surface water, or groundwater. Surface water is relatively easy to manage, as accessible testing methods are able to detect the levels of bacterium, chlorine and other composites found in water. Extensive monitoring of reservoirs and sample testing at selected water points can theoretically effectively control the quality of water.<br />
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1.2 During the recent Typhoid outbreak in Delmas in Mphumalanga, human waste containing the Salmonella Typhi bacteria was found in boreholes and which led to a number of people contracting the Typhoid disease. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) spokespeople indicated that the disease was as a result of poor management of water systems. They have committed themselves to embark on a series of inspections of municipalities where there may be concerns relating to water and the treatment of sewage.<br />
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During 2005 August, concerns were raised in Boksburg on the East Rand where the Elsburg Spruit, which also runs past Reiger Park and various informal settlement areas, is contaminated by mining waste from the East Rand Propriety (Pty) Ltd (ERPM) goldmine. This contaminated water is utilized for household consumption by residents of the informal settlement areas.<br />
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1.3 Due to a lack of services e.g. housing with proper sewage, water and refuge removal, these informal settlements inevitably contaminate the Elsburg Spruit (surface water) with human waste. Further down (as a matter of speaking) other informal settlement areas consume this contaminated water. The possibility of Typhoid outbreak is thus ever present should the water consumption not be addressed (primarily) and the settlement of informal settlement areas on the banks of the river (long term – secondarily) be given attention by the local authorities.<br />
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1.4 Bacterium that finds its way to the underground water table is spread through the ecological ground formation called karst.<br />
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Karst is a special type of landscape that is formed by the dissolution of soluble rocks, including limestone and dolomite. Karst regions contain aquifers that are capable of providing large supplies of water – more than 25% of the world’s population either lives on or obtains its water from karst aquifers. Common geological characteristics of karst regions that influence human use of its land and water resources include ground subsidence, sinkhole collapse, groundwater contamination, and predictable water supply. Gauteng is almost 70% underlayed by karst, and South Africa holds 12% of the world’s karst systems, making it the largest single repository for karst in the world.<br />
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Karst systems are facing mammoth pressures from unsustainable over-exploitation in South Africa, including pollution of groundwater and surface habitat, urban development and roads, unauthorized removal of dolomites, fossils and cave formations by public and the over-use of natural resources in the areas, including lime operations and agriculture.<br />
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Karst is the backbone of the cement industry, and hosts South Africa’s future drinking supply. Karst is also habitat to three of the most endangered small mammals, all of which are bats; bats are vital to a sustainable and healthy agriculture sector, because of their role in pollination and problem invertabrate reduction.<br />
Source: The Internet<br />
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1.5 The East Rand, Delmas and Pretoria, are all situated on the same karst, and as disease in the form of bacterium, is easily and rapidly conveyed through karst systems due to this expansive ancient conduit drainage system, it is more than likely that the typhoid disease is slowly (although progressively) geographically en route to Pretoria.<br />
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GROUNDWATER AND POSSIBLE CONTAMINATION<br />
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1.1 The natural groundwater (water table underground) and surface water have played a significant role in providing natural habitat and people with natural water for survival, agricultural purposes and household consumption.<br />
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Groundwater originates from precipitation that falls in the form of rain and seeps into the ground, filling open spaces within layers of sand or formations beneath the land surface.<br />
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1.2 In South Africa, underground mining operations have caused a disturbance in the quality of the groundwater due to Mine Acid Drainage (MAD) that seeps into the groundwater during mining operations. This is even more so the case in Gauteng which houses the most extensive mining operations in South Africa. Although the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry has a water quality management program to ensure that water quality is suitable for domestic and agricultural purposes and contributes to maintaining of a health ecosystem, some of this contaminated and sometime hazardous water still find their way into streams and rivers, where human and animal and plant life are exposed to it.<br />
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1.3 Especially in Gauteng, a number of informal settlement areas have located next to natural streams and dams and catchment areas where contaminated water is eminent.<br />
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1.4 The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, who has a Water Management Function, which is extended with the establishments of Water Management Institutions, together with the nine regional offices, have made provision for policy implementation, operation, control and monitoring of water quality at an operational level.<br />
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1.5 Due to the extent and multiplicity of the management functions associated with water quality management, the Department is not considered to be the sole responsible authority of water quality management. The responsibility has shifted to include various levels of the community, industry, local government as well as individual users. It is also within this “shift in responsibility” that numerous academics and specialists believe that standards with regards to quality of water have dropped.<br />
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1.6 There are individuals and institutions that have studied the water table and groundwater levels and its composition extensively, and have come to the conclusion that Acid Rock Drainage and increasing levels of heavy metals (no, not the music ones!) have raised the contamination levels in water to such an extent that it has become hazardous for plant, animal and human consumption.<br />
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1.7 Mining water residues are polluting groundwater throughout the whole of Gauteng. Highly polluted water has been decanting into the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site for the last two years. It is estimated that forty thousand square meters of water containing heavy metals pollutes surface rivers every year. These heavy metals or sulphates contaminate groundwater almost irreversibly as a result of mining operations in Gauteng.<br />
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1.8 Around the Krugersdorp Game Park, many animals have died as a result of drinking contaminated water emanating from Acid Rock Drainage (ARD) or MAD. Even people have been diagnosed with heavy metal poisoning.<br />
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1.9 Heavy metal rich ore is transferred into the groundwater via a phoebe (bacteria), and has a long term devastated effect on health, the economy and the environment.caveandkarst.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18086921975598641114noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5123028184588330022.post-29883206046743544022007-08-15T13:22:00.001-07:002007-08-27T02:44:34.416-07:00<span style="font-size:180%;">CONTAMINATED WATER POSING A SERIOUS THREAT TO HEALTH: AN AGRICULTURAL PERSPECTIVE</span><br /><br /><br />Contaminated water is usually the result of numerous factors, ranging from groundwater being exposed to various forms of heavy metals and harmful solids, to contamination as a result of previous mining (mine acid decant) and/or some or other form of industrial and farming activities. Over a period of time, these minute particles are transported via an underground ecological system (e.g. dolomite and dynamic karst systems) and find their way into water utilized for every day consumption.<br /><br />1.1 Geohydrologist’s and Geophysicists have proved that the threat to agriculture is more serious than anticipated by governing bodies such as The Department of Water and Forestry (DWAF). Any cattle living on the emanating decant will carry a diverse range of heavy metal poisoning’s, including that of Thorium and Uranium. Their reproduction and fetal deaths are reported to be the biggest concern.<br /><br />1.2 Some vegetables absorb heavy metals along with other usually undesirable pathogens (the biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host).<br />In numerous informal settlements, vegetables are grown close to rivers and streams, such as the case in Tokyo and Slovo informal settlements close to Reiger Park on the East Rand (Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality). As a result of poor living conditions and virtually non-existent service delivery in terms of water and sanitation, the Elsburg Spruit is contaminated by human waste. The same contaminated water is utilized for the vegetation, which is logically absorbed by the vegetables and thus relayed to human health systems.<br /><br />1.3 Besides the vegetables itself, farming equipments’ life expectancy is likely to decrease as a result of the corrosive irrigant on farming fields. This will also have a direct effect on borehole quality. Although no know study has been made on the long term effect this will have on productivity and cost effectiveness of capital enriched equipment, it seems obvious that long term farming is expected to drop as a result of diminishing soil quality as a result of exposure to contaminated water.<br /><br />1.4 The farm labourers exposed to the contaminated water and soil and vegetation on a permanent basis, pose the threat of contracting heavy metals poisoning. Environmentalists believe that that this scenario already exists, albeit subtle, and the situation is made much more complex as it is difficult to quantify the current situation, although enough evidence exists that prove the current threat.<br /><br />COMMENT:<br />Under normal circumstances, the path that a patient diagnosed with heavy metals poisoning will be a long painful one with serious implications to heath care provision services (e.g. medical aids) and personal or government budgets. The average medical practitioner would thus hardly ever expect a patient to suffer from heavy metals poisoning of this nature. It is therefore imperative to involve the Department of Health in a combined effort to address the issue of heavy metals poisoning in humans.<br /><br />1.5 It has previously been mentioned that the Krugersdorp Game Reserve and various agricultural industries in the geographical surrounding areas face immanent closure due to declining quality of available groundwater and soil. The area also caters for the Cradle of Humankind (COH) World Heritage Site (WHS), which is under serious threat due to this harmful hydrology. It is believed that South Africa will loose the WHS as a direct result of poor management of the groundwater by all the authorities involved.<br /><br />1.6 Another source of the contamination is historical mining activities. As pointed out in previous reports, mining activities all over Gauteng has contaminated natural water supply in the form of acid decant. Harmony Gold Mine to the west of Gauteng has cleaned up their site and effectively changed the hydrology. The East Rand Propriety Mine (Pty) Ltd (ERPM) was supposed to have utilized a government grant to sufficiently “clean” groundwater, but failed to do so. Environmentalists have complained to the DWAF and provincial government, but without any remediatory response. (The matter of contaminated groundwater caused by ERPM was covered in the media during 2005.) In Ekurhuleni various informal settlements is exposed to this contaminated groundwater (as mentioned above).<br /><br />1.7 The mining industry seems to acknowledge the fact that the dolomite (on which most of Gauteng is situated) or underground karst systems are not compartmentalized and that all the surrounding areas are interlinked through an ancient flow paths. This only emphasizes the complexity of the issue of contaminated groundwater and its vast effects on all areas in Gauteng and on all animal, plant and human life.<br /><br /><br />2. ADDITIONAL REMARKS<br /><br />2.1 The DWAF and the Rand Water (RW) have indicated that they intend to upgrade the current water system in Delmas. A media report (Beeld 2006/05/23) indicates that the upgrade will cost ±R100 million. This is primarily done as a direct result of the recent outbreak of typhoid fever which cost five people their lives and hundreds fell sick, and secondarily because the water system is apparently outdated. A strong borehole is to be sunk and linked to the town’s reservoir. Hydrologists and environmentalists believe that a new water utilization system would not address the origin of the contaminated water, and will thus have no impact on water quality.<br /><br />2.2 Harmony Gold Mine has been forced to assist three closed-down mines in the North West Province (Stilfontein, Buffelsfontein and Hartebeesfontein) to pump and treat underground water supply, even though these mines do not belong to Harmony (Beeld 2006/05/30). This proves that the underground water system situated on a dynamic dolomite (karst) system is so inter-linked that no single province can function independently, and there was argued that the contaminated water from one mine (even though it was closed-down) can be “transported” to another mine and result in loss of life in current operational mines.<br /><br />2.3 The International Union of Conservation Nations (IUCN SA) held a Karst Working Group (KWG) meeting during January 2006 whereby the issue of “impacts of agriculture and mining on the water resources and water-based ecosystem of the COHWHS” was discussed. This emphasizes the fact that the management of water quality at the COHWHS as incorporated in the Blue IQ Projects, is a great concern that needs continuous attention from a wide variety of authorities.caveandkarst.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18086921975598641114noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5123028184588330022.post-9788013692139028062007-08-15T13:22:00.000-07:002007-08-27T02:43:21.857-07:00Cave and Karst Managment<div align="left"><br /><br /><strong><span style="font-size:180%;">Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site<br /><br />The Management of Karst Landscapes and Caves<br /><br />FINAL REPORT<br /><br /><br />September 2002<br /><br />Report prepared by: M.Buchanan & J.Maguire<br /></span></strong><br /><br /><br />1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY<br />· There are numerous valid reasons for protecting and managing the subterranean environment of the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site. These encompass ecological, water conservation, scientific, commercial, tourism and aesthetic aspects.<br />· Although protective legislation exists, this often<br />· is difficult to enforce and monitor<br />· presents gaps<br />· overlaps and duplicates areas of responsibility<br />· is not co-ordinated, enforced, policed and monitored by any one organ of state.<br />· The subterranean environment and the intricate and fragile “biosphere” it contains is an overlooked and under-managed ecological area.<br />· The Minerals Act, the National Water Act, the National Heritage Resources Act, the National Environmental Management Act, the Tourism Act, the Public Health and Safety Act and the Nature Conservation Ordinance 12 of 1983 all impinge on cave management and cave users.<br />· A number of sensitivities, risks and threats to the subterranean environment have been identified. The most significant of these is a lack of co-ordinated management which allows uncontrolled human activities to cause on-going degradation of this environment.<br />· A number of threats and risks to cave users have also been identified, the most important of these being site safety and the risk of contracting Histoplasmosis, particularly for HIV positive people.<br />· No adequate measures are in place to control the depredations caused by commercial operators and other cave users. Serious environmental depredation has been caused over the last decade with the rise in popularity of “adventure sport” - caving and cave diving.<br />· Private landowners use or abuse the subterranean environment as they please: for dumping waste and dead animals, allowing uncontrolled commercial operations or excessive groundwater abstraction. Pollution of groundwater by domestic sewage is also a problem.<br />· The effects of human activities can be gauged by diminishing evidence of wintering bat colonies in the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site caves. The Schreiber’s Long-fingered bat Miniopterus schreibersii appears to have declined to a point of concern.<br />· New satellite-borne magnetometry will shortly render non-disclosure as a management tool ineffective. Information on the whereabouts of subterranean voids will become available on the Internet. This will place a substantial strain on managing and monitoring the resource.<br />· There is an urgent need for the following management structure: A Karst Institute of South Africa or at least a Karst Committee for the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site, dedicated to the protection and management of Karstic landscapes as a whole, as well as to the subterranean environments hosted by the dolomite. This could be one of a number of task-specific sub-committees of the Overall Management Authority.<br />· Its brief would be to function as a protection, management, policy- and legislation-enforcing, policing, monitoring, co-ordinating and permitting body overseeing all aspects of Karst landscape management in the Cradle of Humankind. Such a management authority could:<br />· Identify sites in need of special protection<br />· Develop a total catchment management plan<br />· Develop appropriate processes for management planning and produce a Karst management plan<br />· Develop specific strategies e.g. water quality, fire management or visitor management programmes<br />· Generate environmentally sound development plans for caves and other tourism attraction in Karst areas<br />· Train and develop staff skills in Karst management.<br /><br />· Such a body could not function without:<br />· permanent access to professional expertise on all aspects of Karst management<br />· knowledgeable and well-trained monitors<br />· an inventory or register of caves, including details of locality, name and landowner<br />· a database of information pertaining to such caves, e.g. underground surveys, presence/absence of bat colonies, presence of fossils etc.<br />· the definition of acceptable criteria to define cave quality in a system of grading from Code I (pristine) to Code 4 (forfeit cave).<br />· a priority ranking of caves in order to establish<br />a) caves which require protection for their pristine qualities<br />b) caves which require protection for their scientific significance<br />c) caves which lend themselves to limited specialist access and<br />d) caves which are suitable for use as educational and tourist caves.<br />· a means of protecting scientifically valuable and pristine caves form the effects of human activities<br />· funding to implement protective interventions and Heritage Site monitors or rangers to patrol and control.<br />· A long-term cave clean-up and rehabilitation programme needs to be instigated.<br />· The expertise and knowledge of Gauteng’s two (rival) caving associations CROSA (Cave Research Organisation of South Africa) and SASA (Speleological Association of South Africa) needs to be acknowledged and enlisted by inviting representatives to participate in a policy-making body in order to draw up<br />· a Code of Conduct - including operational guidelines - for commercial operators,<br />· a Subterranean Ecology Guidelines document for landowners, researchers, and all cave users,<br />· a behavioral Code of Conduct for cavers, tourists, researchers and other cave users,<br />· A Subterranean Environment Monitoring Document detailing criteria for monitoring the health of subterranean environments, in the geological, hydrological and biological sense.<br />· a subterranean sampling protocol covering geological, sedimentary, vadose and phreatic water and biota sampling, i.e. those areas not covered by SAHRA legislation (N.B. SAHRA’s legislation with regard to sampling is deficient: see text and Management of Research and Researchers, Overall Cultural Heritage Management Plan),<br />· a cave rehabilitation programme,<br />· a Cave Rescue Organization which would include experienced cavers and cave divers,<br />· a set of criteria and conditions governing the granting of permits for various categories of cave use,<br />· a suggested means of policing and monitoring caves.<br />· Since the significance of the subterranean environment covers archaeology, palaeontology, groundwater ecology, microbiology, atmospheric physics, geohydrology, education, tourism, climatology, sedimentology, cave geology and cave ecology, representatives of all these disciplines would need to serve on the Karst Management structure.<br />· The commercial exploitation of “Pelindaba Stone” (chert and stromatolite-rich dolomite) is causing environmental damage and needs to be controlled.<br />· The legal notion that: "to warn people (of cave dangers) is to admit risk, and to admit risk is to accept responsibility" needs to be clarified for those soliciting paying customers.<br />· This document should be seen as a first attempt to bring together as many key issues as possible relating to Karst and cave protection. A considerable proportion of the Gauteng province is underlain by Karst, and it is of crucial importance that the long-neglected subterranean environment receives protection, management and attention at the highest level.<br />2 Introduction<br />This report is focused on the overall management of Karst landscapes and caves within the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site. Site-specific issues pertaining to the 13 key fossil sites are dealt with in the subterranean ecology reports of the Site-specific Management Plan. The aim of the management strategy proposed in this report is to prevent and control any further degradation of the heritage value of the caves in the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site Karst landscape. Damage to these resources is already considerable. In addition to maintaining and preserving such sites, the focus is on correcting the negative effects of past mis-management or lack of management. Some rehabilitation procedures are outlined.<br /><br />This report is supported by data drawn from the publications and thesis of the late F.N. Gamble, the National Cave and Karst Research Institute report to the Congress of the USA and the World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) Guidelines for Cave and Karst Protection (an IUCN document) as well as by data drawn from field studies, experience and observation.<br /><br />The Karst Management Plan attempts to encompass all elements of international best practice applicable to dolomitic cave management. It incorporates the legal requirements of the Environmental Management Act, the National Water Act, the National Heritage Resources Act, the Tourism Act, the Public Health and Safety Act and the Nature Conservation Ordinance 12 of 1983. It would appear that there are considerable areas of overlap in these legislation fields.<br /><br />The management plan takes into consideration the fact that the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site caves are predominantly of the “Sack Type”, that is, caves with one main entrance and a low ventilation turnover. This has several ecological implications as well as placing a restriction on visitor numbers and frequency of visits.<br /><br />While preservation and conservation of these fragile subterranean environments is of prime concern, it is realized that a balance between conservation and meaningful exposure and usage needs to be struck. It is only through education and exposure that these caves can be preserved in the long term.<br /><br />3 Caves as heritage<br />There are numerous reasons for the protection of dolomitic caves. Some of these include:<br />· caves function as a habitat for endangered and other species of flora and fauna. In the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site hyaenas, leopards, porcupines, owls and a variety of other birds, several species of bats and a host of insects and other invertebrates are known to utilize caves.<br />· caves are important as sites containing examples of rare minerals and crystal forms, as well as unusual solutional features and landforms in their vicinity.<br />· caves are important as scientific sites for the study of geology, geomorphology, palaeontology and archaeology.<br />· caves are important as the repositories of palaeontological and archaeological relics: fossil bones and stone tools have accumulated in them. The entire significance of the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site derives from this fact.<br />· caves are important as modern analogues for past processes: the “modern“ dolomitic caves of the Cradle of Humankind provide a living example of the processes of sedimentation (cave filling), consolidation, calcification, decalcification, collapse and erosion. Such processes were also responsible for producing the famous fossil sites, which represent the erosional remnants of former ancient cavern systems and their contents.<br />· caves are often culturally important sites, both historic and prehistoric, e.g. Uitkomst Cave.<br />· caves function as spiritual or religious venues.<br />· caves may be used for specialized agriculture and industries, e.g. cheese-making, mushroom growing, wine cellars, etc. (not in Gauteng at present).<br />· caves are important as a means of studying and understanding the regional hydrology.<br />· caves are sources of economically important materials, e.g. travertine (limestone) and bat guano (Sterkfontein, Gladysvale).<br />· caves provide sites of beauty, mystery, excitement and challenge and are thus important resources for discovery and recreation.<br />· caves are therefore important for tourism and its associated economic benefits, e.g. tourist caves, scuba diving, caving experiences - Sterkfontein, Wonder Cave, Bat Cave and many others.<br />· Users of caves are as multifarious as the reasons for preserving caves, making management many-sided and complicated.<br /><br />4 Threats and risks to caves and Karst<br />There are a wide range of threats and risks to caves and karst, as follows:-<br />4.1 Fragility of cave ecosystems<br />1 Cave environments are a delicate balance between moisture levels, relative humidity, gases and gaseous exchange, subtle air movements, temperature variations, substrate conditions and a highly specialized cave biota. This finely-balanced ecosystem is extremely fragile and loss or damage to any one element has a knock-on effect which may contribute to an environmental disaster, impacting on the cave biota or the geohydrological processes or both.<br />2 Caves are home to many cave-dwelling creatures (troglodytes) as well as many organisms that are dependent on caves for shelter, although they might feed outside the cave (troglophiles). Disturbance through visitation often displaces such fauna.<br />3 Caves have a very low nutritional status, and cave life is largely dependent on the energy source provided by bat and cave cricket guano, the high moisture levels and the slow geological degradation and accretion processes that are all in a critical balance with other factors such as CO2 levels, relative humidity, radon emission etc.<br />4.2 Destructive processes<br />· Opencast quarrying operations, such as those carried out at Bolt’s Farm, can result in culturally significant caves being mined and bulldozed out of existence.<br />· Engineering threats such as road cuttings, submergence through dam building and filling with debris and waste (e.g. several shafts at Drimolen).<br />· Mining operations such as the exploitation of floor and roof travertines (limestone) of the ancient Cradle of Humankind caverns and the systematic “harvesting” of speleothems in, for example, the Sterkfontein Tourist Cave, also pose threats and diminish significance. (However, it was the mining operations of the early part of the 20th century that exposed the fossils - even “Little Foot” - in the first place!) Such mining is no longer occurring.<br />4.3 Major land disturbance<br />· Changes in soil cover, erosion.<br />· Changes in vegetation cover.<br />· Removal of ‘sculptured’ rocks, i.e. those that are attractively ribbed with chert layers, those that contain stromatolites, those which are attractively weathered with ‘elephant skin’ surface or which show ‘karren’. It is apparent, particularly at the Sterkfontein, Coopers and Kromdraai sites, which are close to an access road, that almost every loose dolomitic rock of portable dimensions has been removed for decorative garden stone. Known as “Pelindaba Rock”, this resource is exploited commercially and many tons have reportedly been removed from the Gondolin and Haasgat area.<br />· The effect of large scale removal is to remove the microhabitats necessary for a wide range of biota such as land molluscs (snails), insects, scorpions, lizards, snakes and plants such as hardy ferns which often establish in the cooler crevices between rocks.<br />· A second effect is to substantially increase ambient temperature: a covering of rocks of different size and orientation creates a mosaic of shady cooler areas throughout the day. The removal of this textured and varying shady/cool sunny/hot surface raises the ambient temperature. Plants and animals which require a rocky habitat for shelter, protection and survival will die out.<br />4.4 Hydrological disturbance, groundwater abstraction<br />· Siltation of waterways - even from activities outside of the actual Karst landscape.<br />· Diversion or changes in waterflow, e.g. Blaauwbank stream and wetland.<br />· Excessive groundwater abstraction. Voids in the country rock which are kept stable by being water-filled are destabilized by becoming progressively drained by groundwater abstraction, giving rise to subsidences and sinkholes.<br />4.5 Pollution of aquifers<br />· The fissured and faulted permeable dolomitic country rock functions as a natural sponge. The movement of pollutants in groundwater is rapid and difficult if not impossible to contain. Many examples of problems due to groundwater pollution have been documented, amongst the earliest being the 1854 cholera epidemic in Britain. The same could happen here.<br />· The comparatively rapid transmission of groundwater flows in Karst provides little opportunity for natural filtering or other purifying effects, and problems such as disease transmission may arise much more readily than in other terrain.<br />· For this reason, only sealed-tank sanitation systems should be permitted in the dolomitic areas of the Cradle of Humankind.<br />· Sources of pollution located far outside the Karst area itself can still have devastating impacts.<br />· Sewage effluent from the Krugersdorp/Mohale Municipality’s sewage works is pouring into the top (southern) end of the Cradle of Humankind at the rate of approximately 5.7 million cubic meters per annum, via the Blaauwbank River, which flows past Sterkfontein, Swartkrans and several other Cradle of Humankind localities. On occasion, the effluent is noticeably odiferous.<br />· The proliferation of high-nitrate requiring industries along of the Blaauwbank Spruit, such as vegetable farming, is likely to cause chemical and organic pollution.<br />· There is a risk of pollution by gaseous hydrocarbons from fuel storage or waste sites.<br />4.6 Farming, feedlots and fish<br />· Several intensive farming feedlots have been established within the 100 year floodplain of the Blaauwbank Spruit in the Sterkfontein Valley. Fields have been turned where wetlands with reedbeds were once present. Not only does wetland ploughing destroy the habitat and the natural filtration capacity of wetlands, it also causes siltation of the waterway and damage to riverine habitats downstream. Effluent from the feedlots and the piggery upstream of Swartkrans are responsible for pollution.<br />· Untreated water from the trout farm on the Blaauwbank discharged back into the river raises the nitrate level as a result of the fish-feeding programme. Introduction of fish-borne diseases present a potential hazard to indigenous fish in the lower Blaauwbank system.<br />4.7 Human utilisation of caves<br />· In the COH WHS, human utilisation of dolomitic caves has mainly taken the form of mining (to varying degrees, at all 13 of the key fossil sites), quarrying for aggregate and flux (Bolt’s Farm), tourism (Sterkfontein Caves, Wonder Cave), guano extraction (Sterkfontein Cave, Gladysvale), caving and scuba diving (numerous), and scientific research (many sites).<br />· Speleothem “harvesting” was also practised at many sites, including Sterkfontein, permanently diminishing its tourist value.<br />4.7.1 The constraints on utilisation imposed by cave form in the COH<br />4.8 Caves in the Cradle of Humankind are commonly of the “sack” type - that is, the volume of the cave extends below a single main entrance, although the forms of individual caves may vary considerably. There may be smaller subsidiary openings to the surface.<br />· Such a single-entranced “sack” cave might take on the form of a bottle-necked cave (generally inaccessible, except to cavers), where the entrance is more or less centrally situated over the void, or a vertical or inclined shaft-type entrance might be situated to one side of the cavern chamber.<br />· The sack situation creates a trap for most gases that are heavier than air i.e. carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane etc.<br />· Ventilation turnover in sack caves is slow with a large recovery period after disturbance. This slow ventilation has serious implications for visitor numbers and visitor frequency.<br />4.8.1 Human impacts on caves<br />Human utilisation of caves results in a wide range of impacts:<br />· Alteration of the physical structure of the cave by widening passages and creating entrances, e.g. Sterkfontein, Wonder Cave. This has a number of follow-on impacts, such as on air movement, temperature and humidity.<br />· Alteration of air movements and micro-climate. This affects cave humidity and speleothem growth.<br />· Alteration of water chemistry. This impacts on speleothem formation and survival of rare isopod populations in some subterranean lakes. The latter are also drastically impacted upon by increased siltation.<br />· Alteration of cave hydrology, e.g. Wonder Cave and Sterkfontein. From time to time water has to be pumped out to allow for visitor access.<br />· Introduction of artificial light. This encourages algal and slime mould “blooms”, which disfigure speleothems. Artificial light can raise the cave temperature and disturb bat colonies.<br />· Disturbance of bat colonies often results in their abandoning the cave altogether, resulting in a loss of nutrient input in the form of bat guano.<br />· Compaction (by trampling) or liquefaction of floors destroys cave soil flora and fauna, and can cause the ultimate “biological death” of the cave.<br />· Erosion or disturbance to cave sediments and their contents, e.g. the stairway that was cut through a fossiliferous debris cone in the Sterkfontein Tourist Cave.<br />· Physical destruction of speleothems and mineral crystal growths by collectors, cavers, tourists, scientists and unauthorised persons.<br />· Disturbance and displacement of troglodytic and troglophilic fauna, e.g. porcupines, owls, bats.<br />· Introduction of alien organisms, e.g. algal and fungal spores, bacteria.<br />· Introduction of alien materials such as metals, concrete, climbing aids, monitoring equipment, cables, lighting.<br />· Introduction of pollutants, e.g. paper, plastic, foil, lint from clothing, etc.<br />· Raised CO2 and temperature levels.<br />· Raised dust levels, which spoils speleothems.<br />· Surface impacts, such as compaction, erosion, abrasion, sediment disturbance.<br />· Outside the cave, altered patterns of drainage by the creation of paths and walkways.<br />· Vandalism, graffiti.<br /><br />Carbide Lighting Carbide lighting is extremely polluting, not only from used carbide dumping within caves, but more particularly from the soot which such lighting generates. This wafts through the cave air, and carried by natural draughts - sometimes over hundreds of metres - is deposited on every surface: in the long term, everything becomes black or grey. Soot production from decades of carbide lighting at Sterkfontein has ruined the once sparkling crystal formations in the Name Chamber and permanently sullied all the other speleothems on the tourist route.<br /><br /><br />4.8.2 The impact of caves on humans<br />· Dangers to persons utilising caves are both visible and invisible. In addition, there is the ever-present hazard of site instability (see Overall Cultural Heritage Management Plan).<br />· Visible hazards include uneven substrates, walls and ceilings, vertical drops and tight passages. Sudden claustrophobia can be a problem with some visitors.<br />· Invisible hazards include the risk of Histoplasmosis, radon emissions and high CO2 levels.<br />· Caves are inherently unstable. Instability is usually the result of ongoing geological processes, such as dissolution, decalcification and erosion, and results in unpredictable sudden collapses of roof blocks (in mining jargon, called “coffin lids”), usually along natural bedding planes.<br />· Site instability can also be exacerbated by activities on the surface, such as excavations, which may create sumps for storm water. Channeling of surface water flow by footpaths and dumped material is also problematic. The use of explosives or pneumatic drills on the surface increases the risk of underground collapse.<br /><br />Histoplasmosis:<br />"Cave Disease"<br /><br />Cave Disease or Histoplasmosis is a debilitating lung disease caused by the inhalation of non-filterable fungal spores. The spores originate from the fruiting bodies of the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum, which grow on the thick powdery beds of bat guano deposited on cave floors under bat roosts. Several species of bats are colonial, and roosts can cover many square meters of the cave roof. Tramping on the guano beds raises clouds of spores with each step.<br /><br />Inhaled spores germinate in the moist humid darkness of the human lungs. Fungal hyphae (fine threads of fungus) grow and can fill the lungs. The hyphae and the toxins they produce cause lung irritation, a persistent cough, and 'flu-like’ symptoms. Antibiotics do not help and in fact may even facilitate further growth of the hyphae. Ultimately, the irritation set up in the lungs may cause cyst-like nodules to form, resulting in permanent lung damage and impaired lung function. Smokers and HIV positive persons are at greater risk. There is no known cure for the nodules once developed. The disease can be fatal.<br /><br /><br /><br />4.8.3 Commercialisation of caves<br />· The rapid rise in popularity of “adventure tourism” and “adventure sports” has resulted in an increase in the commercial exploitation of caves in the COH WHS.<br />· Commercial exploitation of caves would appear to be an important cause of cave degradation, through over-use and insensitive, uncontrolled utilisation.<br />· Commercial operators appear to be unaware of the Caving Code of Conduct and fail to educate users in this matter.<br />· Reduced local bat populations is one monitorable effect of over-exploitation, and populations of the long-fingered bat, Miniopterus schrebersii, are diminishing to a point of concern.<br />· Operators charge as much as R 250 per person per day, depending on cave quality and level of challenge; and even more if technical access equipment is required. This makes the operation of a caving business a financially attractive option.<br />· Approximately 11 “unofficial” operators are interfacing with landowners and are operating without controls in the COH.<br />· Degradation in the form of artificial entrance enlargement to accommodate tourist needs over the past year is causing alarm in the serious caving organisations. Access enlargement causes major alterations in airflow, temperature and dust levels, and impacts strongly on cave ecosystems.<br /><br />Risk Factors for Developing Fungal Infections, including Histoplasmosis: 1. Therapy that suppresses the immune system · Anticancer drugs (chemotherapy) · Corticosteroids and other immunosuppressant drugs 2. Diseases and Conditions · AIDS · Kidney failure · Diabetes · Lung disease, such as emphysema · Hodgkin's disease or other lymphomas · Leukemia · Extensive burns<br /><br /><br />Histoplasmosis and AIDS (source: Merck Manual of Medical information: Fungal Infections) · There are three forms of Histoplasmosis: the acute form (seldom fatal), the progressive disseminated form, and the chronic cavitary form. · The progressive disseminated form doesn't normally affect healthy adults. · This form normally occurs in infants and in people who have an impaired immune system, such as those with AIDS. · Symptoms may worsen either very slowly or extremely rapidly · These include enlargement of the liver, spleen and lymph nodes, ulcers in the mouth and intestines, and in rare cases, damage to the adrenal glands, causing Addison's disease. · Without treatment, the progressive disseminated form of Histoplasmosis is fatal in 90% of people. · Even with treatment, death may occur rapidly in people with AIDS. · It is essential to post special risk warnings at infected caves, and for tour guides to specially draw attention to the risks. · Researchers and students should be made aware of the special risk factors for developing fungal infections, and in particular the exacerbated risks for AIDS and HIV positive persons.<br /><br /><br />Radon · Radon is an inert radioactive gas that occurs in limestone (dolomitic) caves · Radon is one of the products of the radioactive decay of Uranium, an element which is usually present in minute amounts in limestone or the adjacent rocks. · Being a gas, radon seeps from the rocks into the surrounding air. · Normally, air currents disperse radon to relatively low concentrations, but in a confined space such as a cave, the concentration can build up. · This is particularly hazardous where ventilation turnover is slow, such as in the stuffy sack-type caves common in the COH WHS. · Radon and its decay products (which themselves are radioactive) present in the air can be breathed into the lungs, where radioactive decay may occur, thus causing the person to receive a dose of radiation. Prolonged exposure may lead to lung cancer. · This has implications for those who work in caves, such as tour guides or cave monitors. · The radon levels in our caves have not yet been determined. · The legal position vis-à-vis land owners and business owners and their liabilities and responsibilities is also unclear. · The legal necessity of posting warnings at those caves where paying visitors are accepted should be clarified.<br /><br /><br />4.9 Urbanisation<br />· Encroaching urbanisation means more boreholes and increased groundwater abstraction.<br />· Encroaching urbanisation increases the risk of groundwater pollution as well as the pollution of local waterways. The conspicuous development along the southern boundary of Bolts’ Farm is unfortunate.<br />5 Recommendations<br />5.1 General guidelines for cave and Karst protection<br />The following guidelines apply to Karst and cave areas in general:-<br /><br />· Effective planning for Karst regions and caves demands a full appreciation of all their economic, scientific and human values, within the local cultural, scientific and political context.<br />· The integrity of any Karst system depends upon an interactive relationship between land, water and air. Any interference with this relationship is likely to have undesirable impacts, and should be subjected to thorough environmental assessment.<br />· Land managers should identify the total catchment area of any Karst lands, and be sensitive to the potential impact of any activities within the catchment, even if not located on the Karst itself.<br />· Destructive actions in Karst, such as quarrying or dam construction, should be located so as to minimise conflict with other resource or intrinsic values.<br />· Pollution of groundwater poses special problems in Karst and should always be minimised and monitored. This monitoring should be event-based rather than merely at regular intervals, as it is during storms and floods that most pollutants are transported through the Karst system.<br />· While recognising the non-renewable nature of many Karst features, particularly within caves, good management demands that damaged features be restored as far as is practicable.<br />· The development of caves for tourism purposes demands careful planning, including consideration of sustainability. Where appropriate, restoration of damaged caves should be undertaken, rather than opening new caves for tourism.<br />· The Gauteng Government should ensure that a representative selection of Karst sites is declared as protected areas under provincial legislation.<br />· Priority in protection should be given to areas or sites having high natural, social or cultural value, those possessing a wide range of values within the one site, those which have suffered minimal environmental degradation; and/or of a type not already represented in protected areas elsewhere in the country.<br />· Protected area should include as much as possible of the total catchment area of the Karst - although this is not possible in Gauteng.<br />· Where such coverage is not possible, environmental controls or total catchment management agreements under planning, water management or other legislation should be used to safeguard the quantity and quality of water inputs to the Karst system.<br />· Public authorities should identify Karst areas not included within protected areas and give consideration to safeguarding the value of these areas by such means as planning controls, programs of public education, heritage agreements or covenants.<br />· Management agencies should seek to develop their expertise and capacity for Karst management.<br />· Managers of Karst areas and specific cave sites should recognise that these landscapes are complex three-dimensional integrated natural systems comprising rock, water, soil, vegetation and atmospheric elements.<br />· Management in Karst and caves should aim to maintain natural flows and cycles of air and water through the landscape in balance with prevailing climatic and biotic regimes.<br />· Managers should recognise that in Karst, surface actions may be sooner or later translated into impacts directly underground or further downstream.<br />· Pre-eminent amongst Karst processes is the cascade of carbon dioxide from low levels in the external atmosphere through greatly enhanced levels in the soil atmosphere to reduced levels in cave passages. Elevated soil carbon dioxide levels depend on plant root respiration, microbial activity and a healthy soil invertebrate fauna. This cascade must be maintained for the effective operation of Karst solution processes.<br />· The mechanism by which this is achieved is the interchange of air and water between surface and underground environments. Hence the management of quality and quantity of both air and water is the keystone of effective management at regional, local and site specific scales. Development on the surface must take into account the infiltration pathways of water.<br />· Catchment boundaries commonly extend beyond the limits of the rock units in which the Karst has formed. The whole Karst drainage network should be defined using planned water tracing experiments and cave mapping. It should be recognized that the boundary of these extended catchments can fluctuate dramatically according to weather conditions, and that relict cave passages can be reactivated following heavy rain.<br />· More than in any other landscape, a total catchment management regime must be adopted in Karst areas. Activities undertaken at specific sites may have wider ramifications in the catchment due to the ease of transfer of materials in Karst.<br />· Soil management must aim to minimise erosive loss and alteration of soil properties such as aeration, aggregate stability, organic matter content and a healthy soil biota.<br />· A stable natural vegetation cover should be maintained as this is pivotal to the prevention of erosion and maintenance of critical soil properties.<br />· Establishment and maintenance of Karst protected areas can contribute to the protection of both the quality and quantity of groundwater resources for human use. Catchment protection is necessary both on the Karst and on contributing non-Karst areas. Activities within caves may have detrimental effects on regional groundwater quality.<br />· Management should aim to maintain the natural transfer rates and quality of fluids, including gases, through the integrated network of cracks, fissures and caves in the Karst. The nature of materials introduced must be carefully considered to avoid adverse impacts on air and water quality.<br />· The extraction of rocks, soil, vegetation and water will clearly interrupt the processes that produce and maintain karst, and therefore such uses must be carefully planned and executed to minimise environmental impact. Even the apparently minor activity of removing limestone pavement or other karren for ornamental decoration of gardens or buildings has a drastic impact and should be subject to the same controls as any major extractive industry.<br />· Imposed fire regimes on karst should, as far as is practicable, mimic those occurring naturally.<br />· While it is desirable that people should be able to visit and appreciate karst features such as caves, the significance and vulnerability of many such features means that great care must be taken to minimise damage, particularly when cumulative over time. Management planning should recognise this fact and management controls should seek to match the visitor population to the nature of the resource.<br />· International, regional and national organisations concerned with aspects of karst protection and management should recognise the importance of international co-operation and do what they can to disseminate and share expertise.<br />· The documentation of cave and karst protection/management policies should be encouraged, and such policies made widely available to other management authorities.<br />· Data bases should be prepared listing cave and karst areas included within protected areas, but also identifying major unprotected areas which deserve recognition and protection. Karst values of existing and potential World Heritage sites should be similarly recorded.<br /><br />5.2 Specific Recommendations for Cave and Karst protection in the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site<br />5.2.1 Hydrology<br />The following actions are recommended to monitor and protect water quality:-<br />· A comprehensive geohydrological audit of the COH WHS, which includes identification of water compartments, should be conducted. This should include an inventory of boreholes, and a database of groundwater abstraction.<br />· Establish the impacts of mine dewatering south-west of the COH WHS.<br />· Monitor groundwater abstraction by strategically placed borehole monitors.<br />· Investigate the Percy Stewart outfall sewer and all other similar installations in the COH WHS, and assess their impacts within the catchment and recharge area of the Blaauwbank Spruit.<br />· Upgrade the Percy Stewart works and seek alternatives to discharging into the Blaauwbank Spruit. Should this not be feasible, establish as nitrate-absorbing wetland prior to the discharge point, e.g. located in the fields below the works. A hydroponic type vegetable production scheme could be investigated. This might be of interest to local communities.<br />· The degraded wetland on the Blaauwbank, particularly north of Swartkrans, should be rehabilitated. This degradation is primarily a feature of the last decade or two.<br />· Water quality throughout the COH WHS should be monitored in such a way that offending polluters can easily be identified and controlled.<br />· Because of the serious risk of groundwater pollution, special precautions need to be taken when installing sanitation. This applies just as much to individual property owners as it does to new large-scale developments. It may be necessary to pass special by-laws applicable to the COH WHS, or to all dolomitic areas, to ensure that appropriate sanitation is installed.<br />5.2.2 Pollution<br />· Even if the source of pollution is located far outside the Karst area itself it can have devastating impacts. For this reason, potential pollution risks from industrial sites, fuel storage sites, waste dumps, domestic and farming residues, as well as from sewerage, will have to be identified and monitored throughout the COH WHS.<br />5.2.3 Farming, feedlots and fish<br />· Farmers should be discouraged from ploughing up wetlands. Enforcement of environmental legislation could help in this regard.<br />· Siltation of waterways downstream of degraded wetlands should be monitored and appropriate action taken.<br />· Water quality downstream of the Blaauwbank Valley Trout Farm should be monitored for water quality and fish pathogens.<br />5.2.4 Human utilisation of caves<br />· The impacts of cave visitation by humans (outlined above) present a complex conservation problem. The extensive and growing volume of publications on this subject is testimony to the complexities of the field.<br />· Regardless of the reasons for cave visitation, the same fragile cave ecosystem is at risk, and all cave users must comply with a set of conservation guidelines, such as those proposed by the IUCN. The enforcement of the code would only be possible if a permitting system for cave visitation is set up.<br />5.2.5 Recommendations concerning visitor numbers and frequency<br />· Visitor numbers should be kept to a minimum, based on cave type and size, remembering that single-entranced sack-type caves with a slow ventilation turnover have a very slow recovery rate. (See Appendix II for method to calculate carrying capacity).<br />· Cave “nano bots” (bacteria, algae, fungi, insects etc.), are extremely sensitive and both require and produce an active, aerated, loose cave floor environment, which hosts many micro-ecosystems and food chains. In a “wild” cave with a low visitation frequency, cave floor compaction due to trampling may rehabilitate within two to three months. On the other hand, frequently visited caves become progressively compacted into dimpled hard “pavements”, which do not rehabilitate at all, and the micro-organisms and processes of the substrate are destroyed.<br />· Over-used caves eventually become biologically and geologically dead, and their tourist value becomes progressively diminished.<br />· Impacts of visitation increase with distance from the cave entrance, the further and deeper within the cave that disturbance occurs, the longer it takes for the environment to recover.<br />· In those caves which are designated for use as tourist caves, the impact of compaction due to trampling can be minimized by installing raised walkways and loosening previously compacted areas.<br />· A formula for calculating visitation frequency based on cave volume, cave form and type, maximum allowable temperature, carbon dioxide levels, humidity and visitor numbers, is included in Appendix II. This should be used to calculate maximum visitor capacity, which will be different for every cave.<br />· Monitoring visits need to be accommodated in the calculation of visitation frequency.<br />· The compaction level of floors can be used as one of the monitoring indicators for the eco-stability of a cave environment, as can the presence of bat colonies or "fresh" bat guano (taking seasonality into account).<br />5.2.6 Recommendations regarding caving equipment and personal attire<br />· Textiles that limit the shedding of lint (“pill”) should be considered.<br />· Portable Lighting: Only battery driven torches and lamps with sealed batteries should be used. Solid and liquid fuel lamps e.g. carbide, paraffin and gas all produce hydrocarbons, which are environmentally detrimental.<br />· AC primary mains are not desirable because they generate excessive luminous heat.<br />· It should be borne in mind that inductive fields develop around feeder cables causing galvanic and electromagnetic force effects along the length of the cable during “light on” time.<br />· Demarcation of sensitive areas should be done with non-degradable washed (post manufacture) PVC plastic barrier tape.<br />· Unstable screed slopes or debris cones and areas of subsidence should be retained with heavy duty shade netting, not wooden supports (wood rots releasing CO2).<br />· All personal equipment should be clean and contain no soil or dust from other caves (NB boots and shoes) to avoid cross-contamination (Histoplasmosis spores, bacteria) from one cave to another.<br />· All technical access apparatus should be removed after each visit.<br />5.2.7 Guidelines regarding the erection of cave gates<br />· The gating of caves requires a number of special considerations. The goal is to allow all cave-dwelling creatures continued undisturbed access, while ensuring that unwanted intruders are kept out.<br />· The gate must provide for free flow of air and an adequate flight path for birds and bats.<br />· Gates should be kept as simple as possible.<br />· Due to the corrosive propensity of mild steel and the availability of modern environmentally friendly eco-stabile metals, 316/304-grade stainless steel is recommended.<br />· This should be set in a moulded concrete anchor network, allowing access to cave fauna.<br />· Anchor braces to be made of concrete away from the cave. All concrete components should be curved, moulded and toned, and not boxed.<br />· Trees growing at cave entrances should not be used as anchors, nor should they be felled or incorporated into the gating mechanism in any way.<br />· The gate locking mechanism should be recessed and hard to access, to prevent forced removal of the lock. All metal structures to be made from stainless steel and these should be prefabricated (made to measure) away from the cave.<br />· Careful thought and planning on the type of closure and gate design is required. Cave gates always need to be hand made and the design of each is site specific.<br />· Note that before a gate can be installed, a permit from DACEL (and possibly SAHRA as well) will be necessary. It is unlikely that landowners will be aware of either this requirement, or of gate-building specifications.<br />5.2.8 Engineering and technical guidelines in Karst areas<br />· If caves are to be used as tourist venues, infrastructure such as roads and car parks should be planned with care, and not sited over voids.<br />· Access roads and car parks should be paved to minimise dust, which often enters the cave, as happens with the unpaved car park at Wonder Cave.<br />· Care should be taken that footpaths and other landscaping details or infrastructure such as steps do not interfere with, or negatively impact on, the flow of water into the cave. Pooling of water should be avoided.<br />· Mild steel and wooden infrastructure should not be used in dolomitic caves because of the CO2 released.<br />· Pit-latrines should not be allowed on dolomitic areas, because of ground-water pollution.<br />· Geophysical and drilling investigations must be completed prior to new building to minimise risk of collapse into sinkholes.<br />· The rugged “tank trap” terrain often encountered in dolomitic areas makes the concealment of pipes etc difficult and expensive. Burying such infrastructure necessitates blasting and environmental damage. This should be borne in mind during the planning stage of developments. Raised pipelines are unsightly, e.g. Sterkfontein.<br /><br /><br />6 Specific management interventions required<br />6.1 The need for a cave register (inventory) and database<br />Before the heritage significance or heritage potential of dolomitic caves can be conserved, or any permitting system effectively implemented, the management authority/ies would have to know:<br />1 Where the dolomitic caves are situated i.e. an inventory of caves, their names (if any) and locations.<br />2 What the status of each cave is, i.e. whether it is pristine or near pristine, (Code 1, See below), a “limited access” high-quality cave (Code 2) a “high intensity access” cave such as a show cave, like Wonder Cave (Code 3), or a “forfeit cave” like Sterkfontein, which in addition to the damage caused by over-use, has been mutilated by speleothem mining and harvesting (Code 4).<br />3 How many visitors there are, and visitation patterns i.e. a visitor database.<br /><br />Caving organizations in South Africa, either CROSA (Cave Research Organization of South Africa) SASA (Speleological Association of South Africa), in the absence of any higher body of effective control or conservation have hitherto not been prepared to divulge information concerning the whereabouts of caves. Such disclosure contravenes their conservation ethic and/ or constitutional policy. Non-disclosure has been a “management strategy”.<br /><br />Non-disclosure and mutual secrecy has also been the result of an unfortunate and long-standing feud between the two organizations. Because of this secrecy, most of the known caves bear up to four different names and have been “discovered” several times in the last 100 years. This adds a confusing element to the construction of a database. However, between CROSA and SASA, there is a locality record of those caves known to them, their names, approximate sizes and some are documented in the form of a cave survey. Some caves are known only to individuals.<br /><br />It appears that shortly this tactic of non-disclosure will no longer be effective, as satellite-based magnetometry enables underground caves to be detected from above ground. Such information will soon become available on the Internet. Free access to information of this type could pose management problems and necessitate a variety of on-the-ground measures. It might be possible to resolve the differences between the two rival caving organizations by enlisting their help and inviting representatives from each to serve on the policy making body of the Management Authority.<br />6.2 Protection and security: control of commercial operators, caving organizations, researchers, mineral collectors and casual explorers<br />As things stand, there is inadequate control of all these users of the subterranean environment. Commercial caving has been identified as perhaps the greatest threat to subterranean ecology in the COH WHS. The loss of bat populations from caves targeted by commercial operators bears testimony to their ongoing degradation. Recommendations are as follows:-<br /><br />1 Commercial exploitation of caves should be subject to a permit. Permit issue should be subject to a set of Operations Guidelines, an Environmental Code and a User Code of Conduct that should be issued with the permit and adhered to at all times. This would include limitation of visitor numbers and visitation frequency. Permits and licenses should be subject to satisfactory performance.<br />· Ethical behavior and quality of visitor experience should be monitored by site monitors.<br />· A permitting system could generate funding for cave protection and monitoring, and might enable those responsible for causing damage to be held responsible. Landowners with caves should also be required to apply for permits if they embark upon commercial operations.<br />· Issues such as site safety and public liability need to be addressed.<br />· There is no formal Cave Rescue organization apart from expertise within the two caving organizations. A Cave Rescue could take several weeks, putting enormous strain on local emergency services - for example, the failed rescue of a diver at Sterkfontein. Who should bear the costs of such rescue operations?<br />· Caving organizations and researchers are not blameless in their abuse of caves.<br />· The risk of damage by mineral collectors and casual explorers is difficult if not impossible to control. On-the-ground measures will have to be put in place (e.g. Gating, ranger patrols on weekends) at pristine caves worthy of preservation.<br />6.3 Scientist and Sampling: The need for a revised system of permitting<br />· Until recently, scientists have had a very cavalier attitude towards taking samples from caves, and there is recent evidence of intrusive behavior on the part of scientists. Information yield is not a satisfactory excuse for unnecessarily destructive sampling procedures.<br />· A sampling permit is required form SAHRA for the removal of any samples of travertine, breccias or cave sediments. Up to the present time, such permits have been issued subject to the submission of a satisfactory and approved research proposal. There is no follow through enquiry as to the nature of the sampling procedure, or the type of sampling equipment employed, or an inspection of the "sample" and sample site prior to and after sampling by a SAHRA monitor.<br />· Technically when speleothems or breccias are sampled, the "control half" or witness portion of the sample should be left in place or deposited in a suitable institution. However, this is seldom effectively applied. This has resulted in destructive mistakes, such as the removal of stalactites and stalagmites far too heavy for extrication from the cave. These have then been abandoned on the cave floor, muddied from manhandling.<br />· Such speleothem sampling and removal should be conducted in the most unobtrusive manner possible, i.e. sample from a remote area of the cave.<br />· The sample and sample site should be inspected and approved by SAHRA.<br />· A Code of Conduct for sample taking, whether of geological, sedimentological or biological material, or water samples should be drawn up and adhered to, in order to prevent unnecessary damage to caves and their contents.<br />7 The Rehabilitation of damaged caves<br />· Foreign material removal: remove all metal, wood, plastic, dumped spent carbide, wax, batteries and all other litter from cave.<br />· All metal and wooden cave infrastructure to be replaced with eco-friendly material.<br />· Substrate compaction to be rehabilitated by gentle turning of walkways only, not the entire cave floor.<br />· Artificial entrance enlargement should be rehabilitated to restore original configuration.<br />· Entrance size controls ventilation turnover, which in turn impacts on temperature and relative humidity, which influences bat roosting behavior and reproduction. Torpor in bats is temperature and relative humidity dependent.<br />· Reconstruction of broken speleothems is controversial. If deemed advisable, affixing with epoxy glues is an acceptable technique. Some cave managers advocate leaving broken speleothems as an example of what not to do.<br />· Dirty speleothems can be cleaned with high-pressure hoses, but water (drawn from the cave preferably) and electricity is needed.<br />· Algal blooms on speleothems may be cleaned in the same way and lighting adjusted.<br />· Artificial enlargement of cave passages to be remedied, as this affects cave "breathing".<br />· Restriction of access to the cave is part of the rehabilitation process.<br />· Gates can be installed to facilitate access control (see Section 5.2.7).<br /><br />8 Monitoring caves: Monitoring Guidelines<br />· Check for presence of foreign material as mentioned above.<br />· Check abrasion levels - access equipment chafes, floor and wall abrasion due to excessive traffic, smoothing of speleothems.<br />· Check eutrophication levels.<br />· Monitor CO2 levels at intervals throughout the year to establish a baseline. Should changes to CO2 level be greater than 0.24 from an atmospheric CO2 level of 0.03, the cave should be closed or not accessed by tourists. Raised CO2 levels are hazardous to tourists and caves alike, and may cause speleothem degeneration, as has happened in the Cango Caves.<br />· Monitor temperature: this varies from 17 to 19 degrees centigrade annually in Gauteng caves. Visitor numbers and inappropriate lighting raises temperature.<br />· Relative humidity (RH) - expensive to monitor. RH is a key factor in bat biology and speleothem formation.<br />· Bat monitoring. Populations of bats are declining all over the world, and should be considered a priority from a bio-diversity and pest management point of view. Roost locations for the different bat species should be identified and monitored.<br />· Known recent bat roost sites, e.g. Gladysvale, should be upgraded and rehabilitated as soon as possible.<br />· A National Bat Biology Programme should be instigated. Many species of bats are migratory, and are not confined to the Gauteng Province.<br />· Monitor cave groundwater for E. coli .<br />· Check CO2 levels, RH, temperature and Radon emission levels.<br />· Establish whether or not Histoplasmosis is present.<br /><br />9 Further Recommendations<br />· Education programme concerning the subterranean environment and its biota as a fragile eco-system for schools.<br />· Education concerning the subterranean environment as a cultural heritage resource.<br />· Educate landowners and farmers about caves and their value.<br />· Prepare a Code of Conduct booklet for farmers and landowners.<br />· Promote further research into cave mycology and numerous other aspects of cave biology and geology.<br />· Increase public awareness about the hazard of Histoplasmosis in combination with AIDS and other medical conditions (refer to text boxes on Histoplasmosis). Note that this disease is rarely fatal in healthy adults.<br /><br />Appendix III General Guidelines for the Protection of Karst Landscapes and Caves<br /><br />· Effective planning for Karst regions and caves demands a full appreciation of all their economic, scientific and human values, within the local cultural, scientific and political context.<br />· The integrity of any Karst system depends upon an interactive relationship between land, water and air. Any interference with this relationship is likely to have undesirable impacts, and should be subjected to thorough environmental assessment.<br />· Land managers should identify the total catchment area of any Karst lands, and be sensitive to the potential impact of any activities within the catchment, even if not located on the Karst itself.<br />· Destructive actions in Karst, such as quarrying or dam construction, should be located so as to minimise conflict with other resource or intrinsic values.<br />· Pollution of groundwater poses special problems in Karst and should always be minimised and monitored. This monitoring should be event-based rather than at merely regular intervals, as it is during storms and floods that most pollutants are transported through the Karst system.<br />· All other human uses of Karst areas should be planned to minimise undesirable impacts, and monitored in order to provide information for future decision-making.<br />· While recognising the non-renewable nature of many Karst features, particularly within caves, good management demands that damaged features be restored as far as is practicable.<br />· The development of caves for tourism purposes demands careful planning, including consideration of sustainability. Where appropriate, restoration of damaged caves should be undertaken, rather than opening new caves for tourism.<br />· The Gauteng Governments should ensure that a representative selection of Karst sites is declared as protected areas under legislation which provides secure tenure and active management.<br />· Priority in protection should be given to areas or sites having high natural, social or cultural value; possessing a wide range of values within the one site; which have suffered minimal environmental degradation; and/or of a type not already represented in the protected areas elsewhere in the country.<br />· Where possible, a protected area should include the total catchment area of the Karst - not possible in Gauteng.<br />· Where such coverage is not possible, environmental controls or total catchment management agreements under planning, water management or other legislation should be used to safeguard the quantity and quality of water inputs to the Karst system.<br />· Public authorities should identify Karst areas not included within protected areas and give consideration to safeguarding the values of these areas by such means as planning controls, programs of public education, heritage agreements or covenants.<br />· Management agencies should seek to develop their expertise and capacity for Karst management.<br />· Managers of Karst areas and specific cave sites should recognise that these landscapes are complex three-dimensional integrated natural systems comprised of rock, water, soil, vegetation and atmosphere elements.<br />· Management in Karst and caves should aim to maintain natural flows and cycles of air and water through the landscape in balance with prevailing climatic and biotic regimes.<br />· Managers should recognise that in Karst, surface actions may be sooner or later translated into impacts directly underground or further downstream.<br />· Pre-eminent amongst Karst processes is the cascade of carbon dioxide from low levels in the external atmosphere through greatly enhanced levels in the soil atmosphere to reduced levels in cave passages. Elevated soil carbon dioxide levels depend on plant root respiration, microbial activity and a healthy soil invertebrate fauna. This cascade must be maintained for the effective operation of Karst solution processes.<br />· The mechanism by which this is achieved is the interchange of air and water between surface and underground environments. Hence the management of quality and quantity of both air and water is the keystone of effective management at regional, local and site specific scales. Development on the surface must take into account the infiltration pathways of water.<br />· Catchment boundaries commonly extend beyond the limits of the rock units in which the Karst has formed. The whole Karst drainage network should be defined using planned water tracing experiments and cave mapping. It should be recognized that the boundary of these extended catchments can fluctuate dramatically according to weather conditions, and that relict cave passages can be reactivated following heavy rain.<br />· More than in any other landscape, a total catchment management regime must be adopted in Karst areas. Activities undertaken at specific sites may have wider ramifications in the catchment due to the ease of transfer of materials in Karst.<br />· Soil management must aim to minimise erosive loss and alteration of soil properties such as aeration, aggregate stability, organic matter content and a healthy soil biota.<br />· A stable natural vegetation cover should be maintained as this is pivotal to the prevention of erosion and maintenance of critical soil properties.<br />· Establishment and maintenance of Karst protected areas can contribute to the protection of both the quality and quantity of groundwater resources for human use. Catchment protection is necessary both on the Karst and on contributing non-Karst areas. Activities within caves may have detrimental effects on regional groundwater quality.<br />· Management should aim to maintain the natural transfer rates and quality of fluids, including gases, through the integrated network of cracks, fissures and caves in the Karst. The nature of materials introduced must be carefully considered to avoid adverse impacts on air and water quality.<br />· The extraction of rocks, soil, vegetation and water will clearly interrupt the processes that produce and maintain karst, and therefore such uses must be carefully planned and executed to minimise environmental impact. Even the apparently minor activity of removing limestone pavement or other karren for ornamental decoration of gardens or buildings has a drastic impact and should be subject to the same controls as any major extractive industry.<br />· Imposed fire regimes on karst should, as far as is practicable, mimic those occurring naturally.<br />· While it is desirable that people should be able to visit and appreciate karst features such as caves, the significance and vulnerability of many such features means that great care must be taken to minimise damage, particularly when cumulative over time. Management planning should recognise this fact and management controls should seek to match the visitor population to the nature of the resource.<br />· International, regional and national organisations concerned with aspects of karst protection and management should recognise the importance of international co-operation and do what they can to disseminate and share expertise.<br />· The documentation of cave and karst protection/management policies should be encouraged, and such policies made widely available to other management authorities.<br />· Data bases should be prepared listing cave and karst areas included within protected areas, but also identifying major unprotected areas which deserve recognition. Karst values of existing and potential World Heritage sites should be similarly recorded.<br /><br />10 Bibliography<br />1. Document (1994): National Cave and Karst Research Institute Study, A Report to Congress as required by Public Law 101-578 of November 15, 1990: Consideration of the feasibility of establishing a National Cave and Karst Research Institute in association with the National Park Services Cave Research Program. Prepared by National Park Service/U.S. Department of the Interior.<br /><br />Available from:<br />The Office of the Associate Regional Director<br />Southwest Regional Office<br />PO Box 728<br />Santa Fe<br />New Mexico<br />USA<br /><br />2. Guidelines for Cave and Karst Protection: World Commission in Protected Areas (WCPA), IUCN.<br /><br />Available from:<br />IUCN Publication Services Unit<br />181a Huntingdon Road<br />Cambridge CB3 ODJ UK<br /><br />3. Gamble, F.M. 1981. The Management of Karst Cave Ecosystems in the Transvaal, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Geology, University of Natal.<br /><br />Available from:<br />University of the Witwatersrand Library (microfiche copy)<br /><br />4. Fungal Infections: Merck Manual of medical Information, section 17. Infections. Chap 185.<br /><br /></div><div align="left"></div><div align="left"></div><div align="left"></div><div align="left"></div><div align="left"></div><div align="left"></div>caveandkarst.blogspot.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18086921975598641114noreply@blogger.com